The Prologue gives an overview of historical knowledge about Norse settlements in Greenland. The purpose is to outline the factual backdrop against which we must evaluate the tales and legends about the vanished settlers. A short summary of the history of the settlements preserved in Icelandic sagas is provided. The sagas tell us south-eastern Greenland was settled as a westward relocation of Icelandic farmers, a migration first promoted by Erik the Red. It is of particular interest in this section of the book to unravel why the first colonisation of Greenland came to an end in the fifteenth century. Thus, the major current theories for the demise of the settlements are outlined and the scientific debates are explained and appraised. Although the mystery of when and why the Norse Greenlanders abandoned Greenland has never been conclusively resolved, a number of factors appear to have been important triggers, such as change towards a colder climate. Yet there is today a growing consensus in the scientific community that the Greenlanders’ inability to sell their walrus ivory led to the settlements becoming unsustainable.

Volume 2 of The Cambridge History of Global Migrations presents an authoritative overview of the various continuities and changes in migration and globalization from the 1800s to the present day. Despite revolutionary changes in communication technologies, the growing accessibility of long-distance travel, and globalization across major economies, the rise of nation-states empowered immigration regulation and bureaucratic capacities for enforcement that curtailed migration. One major theme worldwide across the post-1800 centuries was the differentiation between “skilled” and “unskilled” workers, often considered through a racialized lens; it emerged as the primary divide between greater rights of immigration and citizenship for the former, and confinement to temporary or unauthorized migrant status for the latter. Through thirty-one chapters, this volume further evaluates the long global history of migration; and it shows that despite the increased disciplinary systems, the primacy of migration remains and continues to shape political, economic, and social landscapes around the world.

Volume 1 of The Cambridge History of Global Migrations documents the lives and experiences of everyday people through the lens of human movement and mobility from 1400 to 1800. Focusing on the most important typologies of preindustrial global migrations, this volume reveals how these movements transformed global paths of mobility, the impacts of which we still see in societies today. Case studies include those that arose from the demand for free, forced, and unfree labor, long- and short-distance trade, rural/urban displacement, religious mobility, and the rise of the number of refugees worldwide. With thirty chapters from leading experts in the field, this authoritative volume is an essential and detailed study of how migration shaped the nature of global human interactions before the age of modern globalization.

This chapter explores the conditions leading to the expansion of Europeans in the late fourteenth century; their tentative efforts to establish colonies in northern North America; and the impact of European contact on the Indigenous peoples who interacted with the intruders. The time frame is bounded by the Viking settlement at L’Anse-aux-Meadows in Newfoundland more than a thousand years ago and the founding by the English of the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1670, which claimed trading rights in Rupert’s Land, the vast area whose rivers drained into Hudson Bay. It focuses on the reasons for and the range of European exploration and settlement in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries; the rivalry among European countries (especially England and France) for dominance in North America; and the role of the cod fisheries and the fur trade in luring people across the Atlantic to exploit North American resources and to interact with local inhabitants in what was seen by Europeans as a “new world.” The chapter includes a discussion of the efforts by England, Scotland, and France to plant colonies in eastern North America (Newfoundland, Acadie/Nova Scotia, and Canada) in the early sixteenth century.

Greek agriculture took place within a largely Mediterranean regime of annual, dry-farmed grains and pulses, alongside perennial vines and olives. Hesiod’s Works and Days, Xenophon’s Oeconomicus, the Attic orators, inscriptions, intensive survey, and comparative data from before 1950 form the main evidence. The agricultural year centred around winter sowing and summer harvest. Scholars propose two competing models of agriculture. Extensive agriculture used draft animals and biennial fallow and was more suited to at least mid-sized holdings, nucleated settlement, and transhumant livestock. Intensive agriculture required greater hand-cultivation and was suited to smaller plots, dispersed settlement, and mixed farming to provide year-round animal manure. High risk of crop failure made intensification, diversification, and storing a ‘normal surplus’ a rational subsistence strategy for smaller landowners. However, there is also evidence for connectivity and production for market. Debates over agricultural slavery, settlement, and possible intensification from the fifth century BCE intersect with the question of market participation.

Chapter 11 covers issues relating to litigation. Part A first addresses the right of exclusive licensees of patents, copyrights, trademarks and trade secrets to sue to enforce licensed IP against third party infringers, and the rules requiring licensors to be joined in such suits. The chapter next moves to contractual clauses that allocate responsibilty for litigation among the licensor and licensee (Ryan v. Graco). It next addresses contractual provisions relating to domestic and international choice of law and dispute resolution, including required arbitration and mediation (alternate dispute resolution). The shifting of fees and litigation expenses is covered next. The chapter concludes by considering special provisions germane to licenses that are entered into in settlement of litigation.

Belgian antitrust enforcement has gradually been strengthened. Applicable provisions are mostly copied from EU law, but national accents remain. Sanctions on natural persons were introduced, and abuse of relative dominance (abuse of economic dependency) was recently prohibited. Some provisions, such as the extension of the scope of EU exemptions to purely national cases, were innovative. Also creative is also the National Competition Authority (NCA)’s hybrid institutional structure, largely separating investigation and fining within one institution. No criminal antitrust sanctions currently exist. Room for improvement remains. The NCA clearly faces budgetary and human resource constraints. The power balance appears to be gradually moving towards the Auditorat. The settlement rate is very high and fines are generally low, weakening the deterrent effect of enforcement. As to private enforcement, there is a long tradition of injunctive relief, although applicants may face a high burden of proof, especially in dominance cases. Belgium duly implemented the EU Damages Directive, introducing the envisaged advantages for claimants but also the hurdles, such as the ‘passing-on defence’.

Breaches of competition law may incur severe sanctions in Austria. Besides heavy administrative fines and nullity of contracts contravening competition law, antitrust infringers must expect private damage action claims from customers or suppliers harmed by antitrust violation. However, only very few final decisions have been rendered in Austria’s private antitrust litigation so far. Under Austrian criminal law, cartel collusion in tendering procedures may qualify as fraud or bid-rigging. Criminal convictions may in turn lead to the withdrawal of trade licences and pose a risk for the company of being 'blacklisted' – at least temporarily – in public procurement procedures. Under exceptional circumstances, dissolution of the company may be ordered if a director has committed an offence in the course of the company’s business activities; the latter possibility only applies to limited liability companies. Under Austrian company law, a director is liable to reimburse all damages caused by not applying the standard care diligence of a prudent business manager, including the compensation of damages incurred through infringements of competition law. This liability exists towards both the company and business partners.

This chapter gives an overview of UK competition law sanctions and their objectives, and provides a critical analysis of: the method for calculating fines; the Competition and Markets Authority (CMA)’s leniency and settlement policies; review by the appropriate court; private enforcement; the level of enforcement and compliance with UK competition law; and other sanctions against undertakings and individuals. The major issues in the UK centre on the comparatively low number of cases completed by the CMA and the potential chilling effect of its criminal cartel offence. Brexit creates new opportunities for the UK to design and apply its sanctions in a more effective way and outside of the constraints of EU Competition Law, but it also creates significant challenges – in particular in requiring the scaling-up of the CMA’s enforcement to include cases that were previously investigated by the European Commission on the UK’s behalf.

This chapter opens the volume’s second thematic strand (Space and Society) with a discussion of landscape and settlement in the age of William the Conqueror. It distinguishes between landscapes of use, landscapes of settlement, and landscapes of meaning and memory, each of which it analyses in turn. Across the entire chapter, attention is paid not only to human settlement and the use and exploitation of the surrounding landscape, but also to the natural environment and the many ways in which it influenced and determined people’s lives through dynamic interaction.