The Subglacial Antarctic Lakes Scientific Access (SALSA) Project accessed Mercer Subglacial Lake using environmentally clean hot-water drilling to examine interactions among ice, water, sediment, rock, microbes and carbon reservoirs within the lake water column and underlying sediments. A ~0.4 m diameter borehole was melted through 1087 m of ice and maintained over ~10 days, allowing observation of ice properties and collection of water and sediment with various tools. Over this period, SALSA collected: 60 L of lake water and 10 L of deep borehole water; microbes >0.2 μm in diameter from in situ filtration of ~100 L of lake water; 10 multicores 0.32–0.49 m long; 1.0 and 1.76 m long gravity cores; three conductivity–temperature–depth profiles of borehole and lake water; five discrete depth current meter measurements in the lake and images of ice, the lake water–ice interface and lake sediments. Temperature and conductivity data showed the hydrodynamic character of water mixing between the borehole and lake after entry. Models simulating melting of the ~6 m thick basal accreted ice layer imply that debris fall-out through the ~15 m water column to the lake sediments from borehole melting had little effect on the stratigraphy of surficial sediment cores.

Subglacial Antarctic aquatic environments are important targets for scientific exploration due to the unique ecosystems they support and their sediments containing palaeoenvironmental records. Directly accessing these environments while preventing forward contamination and demonstrating that it has not been introduced is logistically challenging. The Whillans Ice Stream Subglacial Access Research Drilling (WISSARD) project designed, tested and implemented a microbiologically and chemically clean method of hot-water drilling that was subsequently used to access subglacial aquatic environments. We report microbiological and biogeochemical data collected from the drilling system and underlying water columns during sub-ice explorations beneath the McMurdo and Ross ice shelves and Whillans Ice Stream. Our method reduced microbial concentrations in the drill water to values three orders of magnitude lower than those observed in Whillans Subglacial Lake. Furthermore, the water chemistry and composition of microorganisms in the drill water were distinct from those in the subglacial water cavities. The submicron filtration and ultraviolet irradiation of the water provided drilling conditions that satisfied environmental recommendations made for such activities by national and international committees. Our approach to minimizing forward chemical and microbiological contamination serves as a prototype for future efforts to access subglacial aquatic environments beneath glaciers and ice sheets.

Brine beneath Taylor Glacier has been proposed to enter the proglacial west lobe of Lake Bonney (WLB) as well as from Blood Falls, a surface discharge point at the Taylor Glacier terminus. The brine strongly influences the geochemistry of the water column of WLB. Year-round measurements from this study are the first to definitively identify brine intrusions from a subglacial entry point into WLB. Furthermore, we excluded input from Blood Falls by focusing on winter dynamics when the absence of an open water moat prevents surface brine entry. Due to the extremely high salinities below the chemocline in WLB, density stratification is dominated by salinity, and temperature can be used as a passive tracer. Cold brine intrusions enter WLB at the glacier face and intrude into the water column at the depth of neutral buoyancy, where they can be identified by anomalously cold temperatures at that depth. High-resolution measurements also reveal under-ice internal waves associated with katabatic wind events, a novel finding that challenges long-held assumptions about the stability of the WLB water column.

Inorganic carbon fixation, usually mediated by photosynthetic microorganisms, is considered to form the base of the food chain in aquatic ecosystems. In high-latitude lakes, lack of sunlight owing to seasonal solar radiation limits the activity of photosynthetic plankton during the polar winter, causing respiration-driven demand for carbon to exceed supply. Here, we show that inorganic carbon fixation in the dark, driven by organisms that gain energy from chemical reactions rather than sunlight (chemolithoautotrophs), provides a significant influx of fixed carbon to two permanently ice-covered lakes (Fryxell and East Bonney). Fryxell, which has higher biomass per unit volume of water, had higher rates of inorganic dark carbon fixation by chemolithoautotrophs than East Bonney (trophogenic zone average 1.0 µg C l−1 d−1vs 0.08 µg C l−1 d−1, respectively). This contribution from dark carbon fixation was partly due to the activity of ammonia oxidizers, which are present in both lakes. Despite the potential importance of new carbon input by chemolithoautotrophic activity, both lakes remain net heterotrophic, with respiratory demand for carbon exceeding supply. Dark carbon fixation increased the ratio of new carbon supply to respiratory demand from 0.16 to 0.47 in Fryxell, and from 0.14 to 0.22 in East Bonney.

Microorganisms are the most abundant organisms on Earth, and microbial abundance records preserved in ice cores have been connected to records of environmental change. As an alternative to high resolution abundance records, which can be difficult to recover, we used culture-dependent and culture-independent methods to examine bacteria in glacier ice from the Tibetan Plateau (TP). We recovered a total of 887 bacterial isolates from ice cores of up to 164 m in depth retrieved from seven glaciers, located across the TP. These isolates were related to 53 genera in the Actinobacteria, Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, and Proteobacteria, with 13 major genera accounting for 78% of isolates. Most of the genera were common across the geographic region covered by our sampling, but there were differences in the genera recovered from different depths in the ice, with the deepest portions of the ice cores dominated by a single genus (Sporosarcina). Because microorganisms deposited on glaciers must survive atmospheric transport under a range of temperatures, temperature tolerance should be an important survival mechanism. We tested isolate growth across a range of temperatures (0–35 °C), and found psychrotolerance to be common. Together, our results show that ice depth, and by extension age, are characterized by different types of microorganisms, providing new information about microbial records in ice.

Microorganisms were the earliest inhabitants on our planet that occupy nearly every environment, and play a major role in biogeochemical cycles. Despite their global importance, there remains a paucity of data on microbial responses to long-term environmental and climatic changes. Microorganisms are known to be immured in glacial ice, but no high-resolution temporal records of their density exist, owing in large part to the lack of appropriate clean methodology that allows for rapid analysis of samples over depth. We describe a clean and time efficient method that can produce a high-temporal resolution record of prokaryotic density archived in ice cores. The method combines acquisition of discrete samples using a continuous ice-core melting system coupled with flow cytometry (FCM) of DNA-stained samples. Specifically, we evaluate the performance of the FCM measurement technique in terms of specificity, precision, accuracy and minimum detection limits. Examples from the West Antarctic Ice Sheet Divide ice core are included to show the efficacy of the method.

A clean hot-water drill was used to gain access to Subglacial Lake Whillans (SLW) in late January 2013 as part of the Whillans Ice Stream Subglacial Access Research Drilling (WISSARD) project. Over 3 days, we deployed an array of scientific tools through the SLW borehole: a downhole camera, a conductivity–temperature–depth (CTD) probe, a Niskin water sampler, an in situ filtration unit, three different sediment corers, a geothermal probe and a geophysical sensor string. Our observations confirm the existence of a subglacial water reservoir whose presence was previously inferred from satellite altimetry and surface geophysics. Subglacial water is about two orders of magnitude less saline than sea water (0.37–0.41 psu vs 35 psu) and two orders of magnitude more saline than pure drill meltwater (<0.002 psu). It reaches a minimum temperature of –0.55~C, consistent with depression of the freezing point by 7.019 MPa of water pressure. Subglacial water was turbid and remained turbid following filtration through 0.45 µm filters. The recovered sediment cores, which sampled down to 0.8 m below the lake bottom, contained a macroscopically structureless diamicton with shear strength between 2 and 6 kPa. Our main operational recommendation for future subglacial access through water-filled boreholes is to supply enough heat to the top of the borehole to keep it from freezing.

The Whillans Ice Stream Subglacial Access Research Drilling (WISSARD) project will test the overarching hypothesis that an active hydrological system exists beneath a West Antarctic ice stream that exerts a major control on ice dynamics, and the metabolic and phylogenetic diversity of the microbial community in subglacial water and sediment. WISSARD will explore Subglacial Lake Whillans (SLW, unofficial name) and its outflow toward the grounding line where it is thought to enter the Ross Ice Shelf seawater cavity. Introducing microbial contamination to the subglacial environment during drilling operations could compromise environmental stewardship and the science objectives of the project, consequently we developed a set of tools and procedures to directly address these issues. WISSARD hot water drilling efforts will include a custom water treatment system designed to remove micron and sub-micron sized particles (biotic and abiotic), irradiate the drilling water with germicidal ultraviolet (UV) radiation, and pasteurize the water to reduce the viability of persisting microbial contamination. Our clean access protocols also include methods to reduce microbial contamination on the surfaces of cables/hoses and down-borehole equipment using germicidal UV exposure and chemical disinfection. This paper presents experimental data showing that our protocols will meet expectations established by international agreement between participating Antarctic nations.

Chemical constituents trapped within glacial ice provide a unique record of climate, as well as repositories for biological material such as pollen grains, fungal spores, viruses, bacteria and dissolved organic carbon. Past research suggests that the veins of polycrystalline ice may provide a liquid microenvironment for active microbial metabolism fueled by concentrated impurities in the veins. Despite these claims, no direct measurements of impurity concentration in ice veins have been made. Using micro-Raman spectroscopy, we show that sulfate and nitrate concentrations in the veins of glacial ice from Greenland (Greenland Ice Sheet Project 2) and Antarctic (Newall Glacier and a Dominion Range glacier) core samples were 104 and 105 times greater than the concentrations measured in melted (bulk) core water. Methanesulfonate was not found in the veins, consistent with its presence as particulate matter within the ice. The measured vein concentration of molecular anions implies a highly acidic (pH < 3) vein environment with high ionic strength (mM-M). We estimate that the vein volume provides 16.7 and 576 km3 of habitable space within the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets, respectively, which could support the metabolism of organisms that are capable of growing in cold, high ionic strength solutions with low pH.

Streams in the McMurdo Dry Valleys, Antarctica, flow during the summer melt season (4–12 weeks) when air temperatures are close to the freezing point of water. Because of the low precipitation rates, streams originate from glacial meltwater and flow to closed-basin lakes on the valley floor. Water samples have been collected from the streams in the Dry Valleys since the start of the McMurdo Dry Valleys Long-Term Ecological Research project in 1993 and these have been analysed for ions and nutrient chemistry. Controls such as landscape position, morphology of the channels, and biotic and abiotic processes are thought to influence the stream chemistry. Sea-salt derived ions tend to be higher in streams that are closer to the ocean and those streams that drain the Taylor Glacier in western Taylor Valley. Chemical weathering is an important process influencing stream chemistry throughout the Dry Valleys. Nutrient availability is dependent on landscape age and varies with distance from the coast. The streams in Taylor Valley span a wide range in composition and total dissolved solids and are surprisingly similar to a wide range of much larger temperate and tropical river systems.

The permanent ice covers of the McMurdo Dry Valley lakes, Antarctica, are colonized by a diverse microbial assemblage. We collected ice cores from Lakes Fryxell, Hoare and Bonney. Propidium monoazide (PMA) was used in combination with quantitative PCR (qPCR) and denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) to examine membrane integrity of prokaryotes in these extreme environments. PMA selectively penetrates cells with compromised membranes and modifies their DNA resulting in the suppression of PCR amplification. Our results based on analysis of 16S rRNA genes demonstrate that despite the hostile conditions of the Dry Valleys, the permanent ice covers of the lakes support a ‘potentially viable’ microbial community. The level of membrane integrity, as well as diversity, was higher in samples where sediment was entrapped in the ice cover. Pronounced differences in the fraction of cells with intact and compromised cell membranes were found for Lake Fryxell and east lobe of Lake Bonney, both expressed in differences in DGGE banding patterns and qPCR signal reductions. Limitations in the ability to distinguish between intact or compromised cells occurred in samples from Lake Hoare and west lobe of Lake Bonney due to low DNA template concentrations recovered from the samples.

The nature of microscopic particulates in meteoric and accreted ice from the Vostok (Antarctica) ice core is assessed in conjunction with existing ice-core data to investigate the mechanism by which particulates are incorporated into refrozen lake water. Melted ice samples from a range of ice-core depths were filtered through 0.2 μm polycarbonate membranes, and secondary electron images were collected at ×500 magnification using a scanning electron microscope. Image analysis software was used to characterize the size and shape of particulates. Similar distributions of major-axis lengths, surface areas and shape factors (aspect ratio and compactness) for particulates in all accreted ice samples suggest that a single process may be responsible for incorporating the vast majority of particulates for all depths. Calculation of Stokes settling velocities for particulates of various sizes implies that 98% of particulates observed could ‘float’ to the ice–water interface with upward water velocities of 0.0003 ms–1 where they could be incorporated by growing ice crystals, or by rising frazil ice crystals. The presence of particulates that are expected to sink in the water column (2%) and the uneven distribution of particulates in the ice core further implies that periodic perturbations to the lake’s circulation, involving increased velocities, may have occurred in the past.

The fluorescent neutral lipid stain, nile red, was used to examine cell-specific neutral lipid levels in natural assemblages of Antarctic sea ice microalgae. Neutral lipid:chlorophyll, neutral lipid:particulate carbon (PC) and neutral lipid:particulate nitrogen (PN) ratios were highest in communities dominated by Nitzschia spp. and Navicula glaciei van Heurck. The lowest specific neutral lipid content was estimated in the congelation ice samples dominated by the diatom Amphiprora spp., and in surface assemblages dominated by Phaeocystis pouchetii Hariot and the dinoflagellate Gymnodinium sp. Scatter plots of neutral lipid on PC and PN, which included data from all assemblages, showed that assemblages dominated by P. pouchetii and Amphiprora spp. clustered near the origin reflecting their relatively lower specific neutral lipid levels, compared with assemblages dominated by N. glaciei and Nitzschia spp. Cellular PC:PN was significantly (P<0.001) lower in microalgae inhabiting surface melt pools or tide cracks compared to those associated with congelation or platelet ice.

The stable-isotopic signature of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) has been routinely used in temperate lake systems to investigate the biogeochemical dynamics of carbon. We studied seven perennially ice-covered lakes in the McMurdo Dry Valleys, Antarctica, to ascertain how carbon cycling affects the δ13C of DIC in water columns of these systems. Unlike temperate lakes and, in fact, most polar lake systems, the permanent ice covers of these lakes eliminate physical mixing (turnover) and hence redistribution of DIC in the lakes, as well as minimize CO2 exchange with the atmosphere. These important and unique physical constraints have significant impact on carbon dynamics in the lakes, and important consequences for the δ13C distribution. The geochemistry in these lakes is influenced in varying amounts by landscape position, hydrologic input and their evolutionary history. Five of these lakes (both lobes of Lake Bonney, and Lakes Fryxell, Miers and Vanda) have surface water δ13C ratios of 0–4‰, Lake Hoare has more negative values, while Lake Joyce, the highest-elevation lake, has a much higher value (10.5‰). All of the lakes have upper- to mid-depth δ13C maxima reflecting biological uptake of 12C. Only four of the lakes (Lakes Vanda, Joyce, Hoare and Fryxell) have deep waters with negative values of δ13C, implying rigorous remineralization of 12C at depth. Lake Miers, the only lake that is not closed basin, has the smallest δ13C variation with depth, indicating that hydrologic exchange greatly influences the δ13C signal.

The biogeochemical dynamics of Si in temperate lakes is well documented and the role of biological uptake and recycling is well known. In this paper we examine the Si dynamics of a series of ice-covered, closed-basin lakes in the McMurdo Dry Valley region (~78° S) of Antarctica. Our data and calculations indicate that biological uptake of Si is not a major process in these lakes. Mass balance considerations in Lake Hoare, the youngest and the freshest lake, suggest that annual stream input during relatively low-flow years is minor and that Si dynamics is greatly influenced by hydrological variation and hence climatic changes affecting stream flow and lake level. The data imply that the Si input during high-flow years must dominate the system. Subtle changes in climate have a major control on Si input into the lake, and Si dynamics are not controlled by biogeochemical processes as in temperate systems.