INTRODUCTION

By the twenty-first century, African countries have, by and large, established modalities that facilitate political dialogue, civic participation, and a level of democratic inclusivity in governance. This stands in contrast to the period between the 1960s and the 1980s, where over 30 of the 54 African countries were under military rule or subject to protracted internal conflicts at some stage. Military coups d’ état are seldom heard of and only a few geographical territories still experience violent conflicts (Matlosa 2014). In most countries, regular multiparty elections have emerged as a shared norm (African Union Commission 2010: 2). There is a wider commitment on the continent to the rule of law, and public services are being delivered to citizens. This journey of democratic governance progress has not been easy or without challenge. There is uncertainty about whether the advances made are sustainable and if the current modalities of democratic governance will suffice for the future (Matlosa 2014: 25). The treatment of elections as a zero-sum game, the growth in popular uprisings against democratically elected governments and a propensity to amend constitutions to allow for political leadership continuity are indicative of the fragility of governance institutions.

Since the release of the 1989 World Bank Report Sub-Saharan Africa: From Crisis to Sustainable Growth, which contended that underlying Africa's slow development is a ‘crisis of governance’ (International Bank for Reconstruction and Development 1989: 60), a number of multilateral institutions, bilateral donors and civil society initiatives emerged to support and encourage the democratic governance momentum. Interventions from these organisations varied in orientation and approach. They are broadly inclusive of initiatives directed at improved governance by way of support to political level structures, towards those that focus on the more technical aspects of enhancing implementation capacity (Carothers and De Gramont 2013). The differences are driven by a combination of the mandate of the organisation and the manner in which governance is defined. An understanding of the broad governance definition and approach differences is essential for an appreciative engagement with the African-specific governance thrust. The overall consequence of continental momentum has been the adoption, by the African Union (AU), of a range of governance-centred legal instruments and the establishment of institutions to support compliance efforts.