Abazov, Rafis. 2003. The Parliamentary Elections in Kyrgyzstan, February 2000. Electoral Studies 22: 545–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Acemoglu, Daron and Robinson, James A.. 2006. Economic Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Ahmed, Nizam. 2001. Bangladesh. In Elections in Asia and the Pacific: A Data Handbook. Nohlen, Dieter, Grotz, Florian and Hartmann, Christof, eds. Oxford: Oxford University Press: 515–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Alamdari, Kazem. 2005. The Power Structure of the Islamic Republic of Iran: Transition from Populism to Clientelism and Militarization of the Government. Third World Quarterly 26(8): 1285–1301.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Barkan, Joel D. 2000. Protracted Transitions among Africa's New Democracies. Democratization 7(3): 227–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Beaulieu, Emily and Hyde, Susan D.. 2009. In the Shadow of Democracy Promotion: Strategic Manipulation, International Observers, and Election Boycotts. Comparative Political Studies 42(3): 392–415.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Beber, Bernd and Scacco, Alexandra. 2012. What the Numbers Say: A Digit-Based Test for Election Fraud. Political Analysis 20(2): 211–234.CrossRef

Beck, Thorsten, Clarke, George, Groff, Alberto, Keefer, Philip, and Walsh, Patrick. 2001. New Tools and New Tests in Comparative Political Economy: The Database of Political Institutions. World Bank Economic Review 15 (September): 165–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bellin, Eva, 2004. The Robustness of Authoritarianism in the Middle East – Exceptionalism in Comparative Perspective. Comparative Politics 36: 139–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Blais, André. 2010. Political Participation. In Comparing Democracies 3. LeDuc, Lawrence, Niemi, Richard G., and Norris, Pippa, eds. Los Angeles: Sage Publications: 165–83.Google Scholar

Blaydes, Lisa. 2010. Elections and Distributive Politics in Mubarak's Egypt. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Boix, Carles. 1999. Setting the Rules of the Game: The Choice of Electoral Systems in Advanced Democracies. American Political Science Review 93(3): 609–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Boix, Carles. 2003. Democracy and Redistribution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Borger, Julian and Black, Ian. 2009. National: Turmoil in Iran: Poll Victory or Coup? World leaders urged by opposition to reject result: Defeated leader vows to head protest march: Massive show of force by Ahmadinejad supporters. The Guardian (London), June 15.Google Scholar

Brambor, Thomas, Clark, William Roberts, and Golder, Matt. 2006. Understanding Interaction Models: Improving Empirical Analysis. Political Analysis 14: 63–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bratton, Michael. 1998. Second Elections in Africa. Journal of Democracy 9(3): 51–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bratton, Michael and van de Walle, Nicholas. 1997. Democratic Experiments in Africa: Regime Transitions in Comparative Perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Brownlee, Jason. 2007. Authoritarianism in an Age of Democratization. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Brownlee, Jason. 2011. Executive Elections in the Arab World: When and How Do They Matter?Comparative Political Studies 44(7): 807–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Burns, John. F. 1996. Voters are few in Bangladesh as a dozen die in clashes. New York Times, February 16.

Cameroon: A Transition in Crisis. 1997. Article 19: Global Campaign for Free Expression. October.

Campbell, Tracy. 2003. Machine Politics, Police Corruption and the Persistence of Vote Fraud: The Case of the Louisville Kentucky Election of 1905. Journal of Policy History 15(3): 269–300.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Carothers, Thomas. 2002. The End of the Transition Paradigm. Journal of Democracy 13(1): 5–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Chandra, Kanchan. 2004. Why Ethnic Parties Succeed: Patronage and Ethnic Head Counts in India. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Chong, Dennis. 1991. Collective Action and the Civil Rights Movement. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar

Chwe, Michael Suk-Young. 2001. Rational Ritual: Culture, Coordination, and Common Knowledge. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar

Clayton, Jonathan. 2010. Civil war looms as troops open fire on protesters who want poll loser to quit. The Times (London), December 17.Google Scholar

Collier, Paul. 2009. Wars, Guns, and Votes. New York: Harper.Google Scholar

Colvin, Ross. 2009. Obama backs Karzai, despite vote-rigging. Reuters. ; accessed 11/2/09.

Cooper, Andrew F. and Legler, Thomas. 2006. Intervention without Intervening? The OAS Defense and Promotion of Democracy in the Americas. New York: Palgrave MacMillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Cornelius, Wayne A. 2002. La eficacia de la compra y coaccion del voto en las elecciónes mexicanas de 2000. Perfiles Latinoamericanos 20: 11–32.Google Scholar

Cox, Gary W. 1987. The Efficient Secret: The Cabinet and the Development of Political Parties in Victorian England. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Cox, Gary W. 1997. Making Votes Count: Strategic Coordination in the World's Electoral Systems. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Cox, Gary W. and Katz, Jonathan N.. 2002. Elbridge Gerry's Salamander: The Electoral Consequences of the Reapportionment Revolution. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Cox, Gary W. and Kousser, J. Morgan. 1981. Turnout and Rural Corruption: New York as a Test Case. American Journal of Political Science 25(4): 646–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Dahl, Robert A. 1971. Polyarchy. New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar

DeNardo, James. 1985. Power in Numbers: The Political Strategy of Protest and Rebellion. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Diamond, Larry. 2002. Thinking about Hybrid Regimes. Journal of Democracy 13(2): 21–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Diamond, Larry. 2010. Why Are There No Arab Democracies?Journal of Democracy 21(1): 93–104.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Di Lorenzo, Amanda and Sborgi, Enrico. 2001. The 1999 Presidential and Legislative Elections in Niger. Electoral Studies 20(3): 470–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Dion, Douglas. 1997. Competition and Ethnic Conflict: Artifactual?Journal of Conflict Resolution 41(5): 638–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Dixon, Robyn. 2011. Africa's other corner of strife: Ivory Coast's post-election fury is escalating, and a peaceful outcome may not be possible. Los Angeles Times, March 25.

Dougherty, Kevin. 2011. Haitian election ‘beautiful turn of events’ observer says; Quebec MNA sees Martelly's rise as positive sign for nation's future. The Gazette (Montreal), April 6.Google Scholar

Eisinger, Peter K. 1973. The Conditions of Protest Behavior in American Cities. American Political Science Review 67(1): 11–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Elkins, Zachary. 2000. Gradations of Democracy? Empirical Tests of Alternative Conceptualizations. American Journal of Political Science 44(2): 293–300.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Farer, Tom J. 1993. Collectively Defending Democracy in a World of Sovereign States: The Western Hemisphere's Prospect. Human Rights Quarterly 15: 716–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Fathi, Nazila. 2009. A recount offer fails to silence protests in Iran. New York Times, June 17.

Fearon, James D. 1995. Rationalist Explanations for War. International Organization 49(3): 379–414.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Filkins, Dexter and Rubin, Alissa J.. 2009. Karzai rival said to be planning to quit runoff. New York Times, November 1.

Fleischhacker, Helga. 1999. Gabon. In Elections in Africa: A Data Handbook. Nohlen, Dieter, Krennerich, Michael, and Thibaut, Bernhard, eds. Oxford: Oxford University Press: 387–410.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Flores, Thomas Edward and Nooruddin, Irfan. 2012. The Effects of Elections on Post-Conflict Peace and Reconstruction. Journal of Politics 74(2): 558–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Galloway, Gloria. 2009. Tensions soar as Karzai rejects opponent's call to fire election officials. The Globe and Mail, October 27.

Gandhi, Jennifer and Przeworski, Adam. 2007. Authoritarian Institutions and the Survival of Autocrats. Comparative Political Studies 40, 1297–1301.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Geddes, Barbara. 1994. Politician's Dilemma: Building State Capacity in Latin America. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar

Gleditsch, Kristian Skrede and Chiozza, Giacomo. 2009. Introducing Archigos: A Dataset of Political Leaders. Journal of Peace Research 46(2): 183–269.Google Scholar

Gleditsch, Kristian Skrede and Ward, Michael D., 2006. Diffusion and the International Control of Democratization. International Organization 60, 911–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Gorvin, Ian, ed. Elections since 1945: A Worldwide Reference Compendium. Chicago: St. James Press.

Greene, Kenneth F. 2007. Why Dominant Parties Lose: Mexico's Democratization in Comparative Perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Grotz, Florian and Rodriguez-McKey, Maria. 2001. Armenia. In Elections in Asia and the Pacific: A Data Handbook. Nohlen, Dieter, Grotz, Florian, and Hartmann, Christof, eds. Oxford: Oxford University Press: 319–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Grotz, Florian and Rodriguez-McKey, Maria. 2001. Azerbaijan. In Elections in Asia and the Pacific: A Data Handbook. Nohlen, Dieter, Grotz, Florian, and Hartmann, Christof, eds. Oxford: Oxford University Press: 347–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Hafner-Burton, Emilie, Hyde, Susan D., and Jablonski, Ryan S.. 2013. When Do Governments Resort to Election Violence? British Journal of Political Science. Published online February 26, 2013.

Hartlyn, Jonathan. 1998. The Struggle for Democratic politics in the Dominican Republic. Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North Carolina Press.Google Scholar

Howard, Marc Morjé and Roessler, Philip G.. 2006. Liberalizing Electoral Outcomes in Competitive Authoritarian Regimes. American Journal of Political Science 50(2): 365–381.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Huntington, Samuel P. 1991. The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.Google Scholar

Hyde, Susan D. 2011. The Pseudo-Democrat's Dilemma: Why Election Monitoring Became an International Norm. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Hyde, Susan D. and Marinov, Nikolay. 2012. Which Elections can be Lost?Political Analysis 20(2): 191–210.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Jamal, Amaney. 2008. Barriers to Democracy: The Other Side of Social Capital in Palestine and the Arab World. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar

Kelly, Judith. 2011. Do International Election Monitors Increase or Decrease Election Boycotts? Comparative Political Studies 44: 1527–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Kelly, Judith. 2012. Monitoring Democracy: When International Observation Works, and Why It Often Fails. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar

Khoury, Philip S. and Kostiner, Joseph. 1990. Tribes and State Formation in the Middle East. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar

King, Gary, Pan, Jennifer, and Roberts, Margaret E.. 2013. How Censorship in China Allows Government Criticism but Silences Collective Action. American Political Science Review.

Lehoucq, Fabrice. 2003. Electoral Fraud: Causes, Types, and Consequences. Annual Review of Political Science 6: 233–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Lehoucq, Fabrice. 2007. When Does a Market for Votes Emerge? In Elections for Sale: The Causes and Consequences of Vote Buying. Schaffer, Frederic Charles, ed. Boulder: Lynner Rienner: 33–46.Google Scholar

Lehoucq, Fabrice and Molina, Ivan. 2002. Stuffing the Ballot Box: Fraud, Electoral Reform, and Democratization in Costa Rica. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Levitsky, Stephen and Way, Lucan. 2010. Competitive Authoritarianism: Hybrid Regimes after the Cold War. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Lindberg, Staffan I. 2005. Consequences of Electoral Systems in Africa: A Preliminary Inquiry. Electoral Studies 24: 41–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Lindberg, Staffan I. 2006a. Democracy and Elections in Africa. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar

Lindberg, Staffan I. 2006b. Opposition Parties and Democratisation in Sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of Contemporary African Studies 24(1)123–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Lohmann, Susanne. 1994. The Dynamics of Informational Cascades: The Monday Demonstrations in Leipzig, East Germany 1989–91. World Politics 47: 42–101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Lust, Ellen. 2009. Competitive Clientelism in the Middle East. Journal of Democracy 20(3): 122–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Lust-Okar, Ellen. 2005. Structuring Conflict in the Arab World: Incumbents, Opponents, and Institutions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Magaloni, Beatriz. 2006. Voting for Autocracy: Hegemonic Party Survival and its Demise in Mexico. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Magaloni, Beatriz. 2008. Credible Power-Sharing and the Longevity of Authoritarian Rule. Comparative Political Studies 41: 715–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Marcus, Richard R. and Razafindrakoto, Paul. 2003. Participation and the Poverty of Electoral Democracy in Madagascar. Afrika Spectrum 38(1): 28.

Marinov, Nikolay. 2006. Is the Globalization of Elections Good for Democracy? Presented at the International Studies Association annual convention, March 22– 25.

Marshall, Monty G., Jagers, Keith, and Gurr, Ted Robert. 2010. Polity IV Project: Regime Characteristics and Transitions, 1800–2010. Vienna, VA: Center for Systemic Peace.Google Scholar

McAdam, Douglas. 1982. Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930--1970. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar

McCarthy, John D. and Zald, Mayer N.. 1977. Resource Mobilization and Social Movements: A Partial Theory. American Journal of Sociology 82(6): 1212–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Migdal, Joel. 1974. Peasants, Politics, and Revolution. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar

Miller, Warren E. 1999. Temporal Order and Causal Inference. Political Analysis 8(2): 119--46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Muskal, Michael. 2009. US congratulates Afghan President Karzai on another term in office. Los Angeles Times, November 2.

Mwanasali, Musafiky. 2008. From Non-Interference to Non-Indifference: The Emerging Doctrine of Conflict Prevention in Africa. In The African Union and its Institutions. Akokpari, John, Ndinga-Muvumba, Angela and Murithi, Tim, eds, The African Union and its Institutions. Cape Town: Fanele: 41–62.Google Scholar

National Democratic Institute. 1997. Parliamentary Elections in Indonesia: A Background Paper. May 23. Washington, DC: National Democratic Institute.

N’Diaye, Boubacar. 2001. Mauritania's Stalled Democratization. Journal of Democracy 12(3): 88–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Nohlen, Dieter. 2005. Elections in the Americas: A Data Handbook. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Nohlen, Dieter, Kennerich, Michael, and Thibaut, Bernhard. 1999. Elections in Africa: A Data Handbook. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Nohlen, Dieter, Grotz, Florian and Hartmann, Christof. 2001. Elections in Asia and the Pacific: A Data Handbook. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Nooruddin, Irfan. 2002. Modeling Selection Bias in Studies of Sanction Efficacy. International Interactions 28(1): 57–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

North, Douglass C. and Weingast, Barry. 1989. Constitutions and Commitment: The Evolution of Institutions Governing Public Choice in Seventeenth Century England. Journal of Economic History (49): 803–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Ottoway, Marina. 2003. Democracy Challenged: The Rise of Semi-Authoritarianism. Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.Google Scholar

Page, Jeremy. 2009. Election stalemate after Karzai rejects rival's plan. The Times (London), October 27.Google Scholar

Pastor, Robert. 1999. The Role of Election Administration in Democratic Transitions: Implications for Policy and Research. Democratization 6(4): 1–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Phillips, Sarah. 2008. Yemen's Democracy Experiment in Regional Perspective. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Phillips, Peter. 2005. Interviewed by Emily Beaulieu. Digital recording. April 14.

PM offers vote compromise to end Bangladeshi strikes. 1996. The Gazette (Montreal), March 27.

Political reforms in Mauritania. 2000. Financial Times Information, December 14.

Pop-Eleches, Grigore and Robertson, Graeme B.. 2009. Elections, Information and Liberalization in the Post Cold War Era. Presented at the APSA annual meeting. Toronto.

Posusney, Marsha Pripstein. 2002. Multi-Party Elections in the Arab World: Institutional Engineering and Oppositional Strategies. Studies in Comparative International Development 36(4): 34–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Posusney, Marsha Pripstein. 2005. Multiparty Elections in the Arab World: Election Rules and Opposition Responses. In Authoritarianism in the Middle East. Posusney, Marsha Pripstein and Angrist, Michele Penner, eds. Boulder, CO: Lynne Reinner.Google Scholar

Powell, Robert. 1999. In the Shadow of Power. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar

Przeworski, Adam. 1991. Democracy and the Market: Political and economic reforms in Eastern Europe and Latin America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Przeworski, Adam. 2009. Conquered or Granted? A History of Suffrage Extensions. British Journal of Political Science 39: 291–321.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Przeworski, Adam, Alvarez, Michael E., Cheibub, José Antonio and Limongi, Fernando. 2000. Democracy and Development: Political Institutions and Well-Being in the World, 1950–1990. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Reif, Megan. 2009. Beyond the Bhutto Assassination: Competitiveness and Electoral Violence at the Constituency- and Polling-Station Levels in Pakistan's 2008 National Assembly Elections. Presented at the Midwest Political Science Association annual meeting, Chicago.

Renwick, Alan. 2010. The Politics of Electoral Reform: Changing the Rules of Democracy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Roberts, David. 1994. The Cambodian Elections of 1993. Electoral Studies 13(2): 157–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Robertson, Graeme B. 2011. The Politics of Protest in Hybrid Regimes: Managing Dissent in Post-Communist Russia. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Ross, Michael. 2001. Does Oil Hinder Democracy?World Politics 53(3): 325–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Saikal, A. 2005. Afghanistan‘s Weak State and Strong Society. In Making States Work: State Failure and the Crisis of Governance. Chesterman, Simon, Ignatieff, Michael, and Thakur, Ramesh, eds. Washington, DC: United Nations University Press.Google Scholar

Schattschneider, Elmer E. 1960. The Semi-Sovereign People. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.Google Scholar

Schaffer, Frederic Charles. 2008. The Hidden Costs of Clean Election Reform. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar

Schedler, Andreas. 2002. Elections without Democracy: The Menu of Manipulation. Journal of Democracy 13(2): 36–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Schedler, Andreas. 2006. The Logic of Electoral Authoritarianism. In Electoral Authoritarianism: The Dynamics of Unfree Competition. Schedler, Andreas, ed. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner: 1–26.Google Scholar

Schmitter, Phillipe and Karl, Terry. 1991. What Democracy Is, and Is Not. Journal of Democracy 2(3).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Shahrani, M. Nazif. 1998. The Future of the State and the Structure of Community Governance. In Fundamentalism Reborn? Afghanistan and the Taliban. Maley, W., ed. London: Hurst & Company: 212–42.Google Scholar

Simpser, Alberto. 2013. Why Governments and Parties Manipulate Elections: Theory, Practice, and Implications. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Skocpol, Theda. 1979. States and Social Revolutions. Cambridge: Cambridge UniversityCrossRefGoogle Scholar

Snyder, Jack. 2000. From Voting to Violence: Democratization and Nationalist Conflict. New York: W. W. Norton Company.Google Scholar

Starkey, Jerome. 2009. Vote fraud could be worse this time, say observers. The Times (London), October 30.Google Scholar

Tapper, Richard. 1983. The Conflict of Tribe and State in Iran and Afghanistan. New York: St. Martin's Press.Google Scholar

Tarrow, Sidney. 1989. Democracy and Disorder: Protest and Politics in Italy, 1965–1975. Oxford: Clarendon Press.Google Scholar

Teorell, Jan, Torcal, Mariano, and Montero, José Ramón. 2007. Political Participation: Mapping the Terrain. In Citizenship and Involvement in European Democracies: A Comparative Analysis. Van Deth, Jan, Montero, José Ramón, and Westholm, Anders, eds. London: Routledge: 334--357Google Scholar

Tezcür, Güneş Murat. 2012. Democracy Promotion, Authoritarian Resiliency, and Political Unrest in Iran. Democratization 19(1): 120–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Thibaut, Bernhard. 1999. Comoros. In Elections in Africa: A Data Handbook. Nohlen, Dieter, Krennerich, Michael, and Thibaut, Bernhard, eds. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Tilly, Charles. 2004. Contention and Democracy in Europe, 1650–2000. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Trefs, Matthias. 2005. Guyana. Elections in the Americas: A Data Handbook, Volume 1. Oxford: Oxford University Press: 353–72.Google Scholar

Tucker, Joshua A. 2007. Enough! Electoral Fraud, Collective Action Problems, and the “2nd Wave” of Post-Communist Democratic Revolutions. Perspectives on Politics, 5(3): 537–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Volpi, F. 2004. Pseudo-Democracy in the Muslim World. Third World Quarterly 25 (6): 1061–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Wang, Chin-Shou and Kurzman, Charles. 2007. The Logistics: How to Buy Votes. In Elections for Sale: The Causes and Consequences of Vote Buying. Schaffer, Frederic Charles, ed. Boulder, CO: Lynner Rienner: 61–80.Google Scholar

Wedeen, Lisa. 2008. Peripheral Visions: Publics, Power, and Performance in Yemen. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Wilkinson, Steven. 2004. Votes and Violence: Electoral Competition and Ethnic Riots in India. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Wintrobe, Ronald. 1998.The Political Economy of Dictatorship. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Worth, Robert F. and Fathi, Nazila. 2009. Defiance grows as Iran's leader sets vote review. New York Times, June 16.

Zakaria, Fareed. 1997. The Rise of Illiberal Democracy. Foreign Affairs 76(6): 22–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Ziblatt, Daniel. 2009. Shaping Democratic Practice and the Causes of Electoral Fraud: The Case of Nineteenth-Century Germany. American Political Science Review 103(1): 1–21 .CrossRef