Introduction

In this chapter we give an overview of the main functions of clitics. Most clitics are straightforward function words, and so their functions are virtually the same as the functions of inflectional morphology and of fullform function words generally across languages. We will summarize the major functions, concentrating on broadly verbal properties, clausal properties (which are similar to the verbal properties), nominal properties and ‘other’ properties. We briefly illustrate the parity of function between clitics and inflections by pointing up instances of inflection which parallel the clitics we have discussed. One of the reasons why this comparison is important is because inflections are generally thought to arise in historical language change through a stage of cliticization.

Although the parallels between clitics and inflections are close, there are one or two differences in patterning, too. One important class of words which often become clitics is adverbials, with meanings such as here, there, then, now, as well as still, yet, already, never, and many others. These tend not to be grammaticalized as inflections. Similarly, many languages have discourse particles which take the form of clitics. Discourse particles can be thought of as a special class of adverb which have the function of helping the speaker manage the structure of the conversation (examples are given below in Section 2.6.3). These, too, are rarely expressed by inflection.

Verbal functions

The functional categories associated with verbs include tense, aspect and mood marking as well as polarity (i.e., negation), in addition to agreement properties derived from pronouns, such as person, number, gender, animacy, definiteness and so on. Many languages have inflections that indicate the speaker’s attitude to the truth of a statement; for instance, whether the speaker knows a fact from personal experience, from inference or from hearsay. Some languages have different inflections on the verb depending on whether we are making a statement (declarative mood) or asking a question (interrogative mood). These categories are also often realized by clitics.