Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-77c89778f8-m42fx Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-16T17:50:59.098Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

9 - Green messengers or nature's spectacle

Understanding visitor experiences of wild cetacean tours

from Part II - Human dimensions of whale-watching

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 April 2014

By
Heather Zeppel  and
Sue Muloin
Edited by
James Higham ,
Lars Bejder  and
Rob Williams
Heather Zeppel
Affiliation:
University of Southern Queensland
Sue Muloin
Affiliation:
Griffith University
James Higham
Affiliation:
University of Otago, New Zealand
Lars Bejder
Affiliation:
Murdoch University, Western Australia
Rob Williams
Affiliation:
University of St Andrews, Scotland
Get access

Summary

Introduction

In western countries, whales and dolphins are iconic wildlife species and have been a key focus of marine conservation efforts since the 1970s. Social values based on conservation influence the type of benefits now sought from marine wildlife interactions, such as the trend towards non-consumptive viewing of wild cetaceans rather than killing whales or dolphins (Frohoff & Packard, 1995; Muloin, 1998; Bulbeck, 1999; Kellert, 1999; Hoyt, 2003; Parsons et al., 2003; Higham & Lusseau, 2004; Corkeron, 2006; Neves, 2010; Brakes & Simmons, 2011), or seeing wild instead of captive dolphins (Hughes, 2001; Bulbeck, 2005). These new environmental and amenity values of cetaceans as ‘charismatic mega-fauna’ have underpinned the rapid worldwide growth in whale- and dolphin-watching as a marine tourism activity (Hoyt, 2001; Orams, 2005; Cisneros-Montemayor et al., 2010). In 2008, over 13 million people went on whale-watching tours in 119 countries, generating income of US $2 billion in coastal economies (IFAW, 2009). The economic and conservation benefits of cetacean tours are supported by organizations such as the Pacific Whale Foundation, Whale and Dolphin Conservation, and Whales Alive.

Whale-watching is defined as ‘the watching of any cetacean in the wild, an activity which is almost invariably conducted from a platform (e.g. ship, cliff or aeroplane)’ (Warburton, 1999: 12) and as ‘any commercial enterprise which provides for the public to see cetaceans in their natural habitat’ (Warburton et al., 2001: 5). Swimming with humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) in Tonga (Orams, 2001; Kessler & Harcourt, 2010), dwarf minke whales (Balaenoptera acutorostrata subspecies) in Australia (Birtles et al., 2002; Valentine et al., 2004), and wild dolphins (Amante-Helweg, 1996; Orams, 1997a; Hughes, 2001; Luck, 2003; Samuels et al., 2003; Blewitt, 2008; Zeppel, 2009; Draheim et al., 2010) are popular activities in selected locations where this is legally permitted. As a result, there is a growing body of research about visitor experiences of wild cetaceans.

Type
Chapter
Information
Whale-watching
Sustainable Tourism and Ecological Management
 , pp. 110 - 127
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2014

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Amante-Helweg, V. (1996). Ecotourists’ beliefs and knowledge about dolphins and the development of cetacean ecotourism. Aquatic Mammals 22: 131–140.Google Scholar
Andersen, M.S. & Miller, M.L. (2006). Onboard marine environmental education: Whale watching in the San Juan Islands, Washington. Tourism in Marine Environments 2(2): 111–118.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ballantyne, R. & Packer, J. (2005). Promoting environmentally sustainable attitudes and behavior through free-choice learning experiences: What's the state of the game?Environmental Education Research 11(3): 281–295.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ballantyne, R., Packer, J. & Hughes, K. (2006). Designing ‘Jonah’ experiences: Developing visitor conservation learning through whale watching. In: Conference Program: The 2nd Australian Wildlife Tourism Conference, 13–15 August 2006. Perth, WA: Promaco Conventions, p. 28.Google Scholar
Ballantyne, R., Packer, J. & Hughes, K. (2009). Tourists’ support for conservation messages and sustainable management practices in wildlife tourism experiences. Tourism Management 30(5): 658–664.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barney, E.C., Mintzes, J.J. & Yen, C.F. (2005). Assessing knowledge, attitudes, and behavior toward charismatic megafauna: The case of dolphins. The Journal of Environmental Education 36(2): 41–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beasley, I. (1997). Marine mammal tourism: Educational implications and legislation. Diploma of Wildlife Management Thesis, University of Otago, New Zealand.
Besio, K., Johnston, L. & Longhurst, R. (2008). Sexy beasts and devoted mums: Narrating nature through dolphin tourism. Environment and Planning A 40: 1219–1234.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Birtles, A., Valentine, P., Curnock, M., Arnold, P. & Dunstan, A. (2002). Incorporating Visitor Experiences into Ecologically Sustainable Dwarf Minke Whale Tourism in the Northern Great Barrier Reef. Townsville: CRC Reef Research Centre.Google Scholar
Blewitt, M. (2008). Dolphin–human interactions in Australian waters. Australian Zoologist 34: 197–210.Google Scholar
Brakes, P. & Simmons, M.P. (Eds) (2011). Whales and Dolphins: Cognition, culture, conservation and human perceptions. London: Routledge.
Bulbeck, C. (1999). The ‘nature dispositions’ of visitors to animal encounter sites in Australia and New Zealand. Journal of Sociology 35: 129–148.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bulbeck, C. (2005). Facing the Wild: Ecotourism, conservation and animal encounters. London: Earthscan.Google Scholar
Chen, C.L. (2011). From catching to watching: Moving towards quality assurance of whale/dolphin watching tourism in Taiwan. Marine Policy 35: 10–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Choi, M.A. (2010). Whale-watching or whaling-watching? Contradictory perceptions of whale-watching tourism in Jangsaengpo, South Korea. Masters Thesis. King's College, London.
Christensen, A., Rowe, S. & Needham, M.D. (2007). Value orientations, awareness of consequences, and participation in a whale watching education program in Oregon. Human Dimensions of Wildlife 12(4): 289–293.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Christensen, A., Needham, M.D. & Rowe, S. (2009). Whale watchers’ past experience, value orientations, and awareness of consequences of actions on the marine environment. Tourism in Marine Environments 5(4): 271–285.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cisneros-Montemayor, A.M., Sumaila, U.R., Kaschner, K. & Pauly, D. (2010). The global potential for whale watching. Marine Policy 34(6): 1273–1278.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Corkeron, P.J. (2004). Whale watching, iconography, and marine conservation. Conservation Biology 18(3): 847–849.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Corkeron, P.J. (2006). How shall we watch whales? In Lavigne, D.M. (Ed.), Gaining Ground: In pursuit of ecological sustainability. Guelph, ON: IFAW, pp. 161–170.Google Scholar
Curtin, S. (2005). Nature, wild animals and tourism: An experiential view. Journal of Sustainable Tourism 4(1): 1–15.Google Scholar
Draheim, M., Bonnelley, I., Bloom, T., Rose, N. & Parsons, E.C.M. (2010). Tourist attitudes towards marine mammal tourism: An example from the Dominican Republic. Tourism in Marine Environments 6(4): 175–183.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duffus, D.A. & Dearden, P. (1993). Recreational use, valuation and management of killer whales (Orcinus orca) on Canada's Pacific coast. Environmental Conservation 20(2), 103–117.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Finkler, W. (2001). The experiential impact of whale watching: Implications for management in the case of the San Juan Islands, USA. Unpublished Master of Science Thesis, Department of Marine Science, University of Otago, New Zealand.
Finkler, W. & Higham, J. (2004). The human dimensions of whale watching: An analysis based on viewing platforms. Human Dimensions of Wildlife 9(2): 103–117.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Forestell, P.H. (1992). The anatomy of a whale watch: Marine tourism and environmental education. Journal of the National Marine Educators Association 10: 10–15.Google Scholar
Forestell, P.H. (1993). If leviathan has a face, does Gaia have a soul? Incorporating environmental education in marine eco-tourism programs. Ocean & Coastal Management 20: 267–282.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Forestell, P.H. & Kaufman, G.D. (2007). Speaking from experience: Whale and dolphin watching boats as venues for marine conservation education. In Luck, M., Graupl, A., Auyong, J., Miller, M.L. & Orams, M.B. (Eds), Proceedings of the 5th Coastal & Marine Tourism Congress: Balancing Marine Tourism, Development and Sustainability. Auckland: Auckland University of Technology, pp. 63–67.Google Scholar
Foxlee, J. (2001). Whale watching at Hervey Bay. Parks and Leisure Australia 4(3): 17–18.Google Scholar
Freeman, M.R. & Kellert, S.R. (1994). International attitudes to whales, whaling, and the use of whale products: A six country survey. In Freeman, M.R. & Kreuter, U.P. (Eds), Elephants and Whales: Resources for whom?Basel, Switzerland: Gordon & Breach Science Publishers, pp. 293–315.Google Scholar
Frohoff, T.G. & Packard, J.M. (1995). Human interactions with free-ranging and captive bottlenose dolphins. Anthrozoos 8(1), 44–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Geneste, L. (2005). Hong Kong Dolphinwatch: The evolution of an ecopreneurial business venture. In Schaper, M. (Ed.), Making Ecopreneurs: Developing sustainable entrepreneurship. Aldersot: Ashgate, pp. 203–213.Google Scholar
Herrera, G.E. & Hoagland, P. (2006). Commercial whaling, tourism and boycotts: An economic perspective. Marine Policy 30(3), 261–269.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Higginbottom, K. & Tribe, A. (2004). Contributions of wildlife tourism to conservation. In Higginbottom, K. (Ed.), Wildlife Tourism: Impacts, management and planning. Altona, Vic: Common Ground/Sustainable Tourism CRC, pp. 99–123.Google Scholar
Higham, J.E.S. & Bejder, L. (2008). Managing wildlife-based tourism: Edging towards sustainability. Current Issues in Tourism 11(1): 75–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Higham, J.E. & Carr, A.M. (2002). Ecotourism visitor experiences in Aotearoa/New Zealand: Challenging the environmental values of visitors in pursuit of pro-environmental behaviour. Journal of Sustainable Tourism 19(4): 277–294.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Higham, J.E. & Carr, A.M. (2003). Sustainable wildlife tourism in New Zealand: An analysis of visitor experiences. Human Dimensions of Wildlife 8: 25–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Higham, J.E.S. & Hendry, W.F. (2008). Marine wildlife viewing: Insights into the significance of the viewing platform. In Higham, J. & Luck, M. (Eds), Marine Wildlife and Tourism Management: Insights from the natural and social sciences. Wallingford: CABI, pp. 347–360.Google Scholar
Higham, J. & Lusseau, D. (2004). Ecological impacts and management of tourist engagements with marine mammals. In Buckley, R. (Ed.), Environmental Impacts of Ecotourism. Wallingford: CABI, pp. 171–186.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Higham, J.E.S. & Lusseau, D. (2007). Urgent need for empirical research into whaling and whale watching. Conservation Biology 21(2): 554–558.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Higham, J.E.S. & Lusseau, D. (2008). Slaughtering the goose that lays the golden egg: Are whaling and whale-watching mutually exclusive?Current Issues in Tourism 11(1): 63–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Higham, J.E.S., Bejder, L. & Lusseau, D. (2008). An integrated and adaptive model to address the long-term sustainability of tourist interactions with cetaceans. Environmental Conservation 35(4): 294–302.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoyt, E. (1993). Kujira Watching – Whales and Dolphins: Alive and being watched Japanese style. Bath: Whale & Dolphin Conservation Foundation.Google Scholar
Hoyt, E. (2001). Whale Watching 2001: Worldwide tourism numbers, expenditures and expanding economic benefits. Yarmouth Port, MA: IFAW.Google Scholar
Hoyt, E. (2003). Towards a new ethic for watching dolphins and whales. In Frohoff, T. & Peterson, B. (Eds), Between Species: Celebrating the dolphin–human bond. San Francisco, CA: Sierra Club Books, pp. 168–177.Google Scholar
Hoyt, E. & Hvenegaard, G.T. (2002). A review of whale-watching and whaling with applications for the Caribbean. Coastal Management 30(4): 381–399.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hughes, K. (2013). Measuring the impact of viewing wildlife: Do positive intentions equate to long-term changes in conservation behavior?Journal of Sustainable Tourism 21(1): 42–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hughes, P. (2001). Animals, values and tourism – Structural shifts in UK dolphin tourism provision. Tourism Management 22(4): 321–329.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
IFAW (2009). Whale Watching Worldwide: Tourism numbers, expenditures and expanding economic benefits. Yarmouth Port, MA: International Fund for Animal Welfare.Google Scholar
Kellert, S.R. (1999). American Perceptions of Marine Mammals and their Management. Washington, DC: Humane Society of the United States.Google Scholar
Kessler, M. & Harcourt, R. (2010). Aligning tourist, industry and government expectations: A case study from the swim with whales industry in Tonga. Marine Policy 34(6): 1350–1356.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lambert, E., Hunter, C., Pierce, G.J. & MacLeod, C. (2010). Sustainable whale-watching tourism and climate change: Towards a framework of resilience. Journal of Sustainable Tourism 18(3): 409–427.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Luck, M. (2003). Education on marine mammal tours as agent for conservation – But do tourists want to be educated?Ocean & Coastal Management 46(9): 943–956.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Luck, M. (2008). Managing marine wildlife experiences: The role of visitor interpretation programmes. In Higham, J.E.S. & Luck, M. (Eds), Marine Wildlife and Tourism Management: Insights from the natural and social sciences. Wallingford: CABI, pp. 334–346.Google Scholar
Malcolm, C. & Duffus, D. (2008). Specialization of whale watchers in British Columbia. In Higham, J. & Luck, M. (Eds), Marine Wildlife and Tourism Management: Insights from the natural and social sciences. Wallingford: CABI, pp. 109–129.Google Scholar
Mayes, G. & Richins, H. (2009). Dolphin watch tourism: Two different examples of sustainable practices and proenvironmental outcomes. Tourism in Marine Environments 5(2/3): 201–214.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mayes, G., Dyer, P. & Richins, H. (2004). Dolphin–human interaction: Pro-environmental attitudes, beliefs and intended behaviours and actions of participants in interpretation programs: A pilot study. Annals of Leisure Research 7(1): 34–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Milstein, T. (2007). Watching endangered orcas: The role of communication in balancing marine tourism and sustainability. In Luck, M., Graupl, A., Auyong, J., Miller, M.L. & Orams, M.B. (Eds), Proceedings of the 5th International Coastal & Marine Tourism Congress: Balancing Marine Tourism, Development and Sustainability. Auckland: AUT University, pp. 104–113.Google Scholar
Milstein, T. (2008). When whales ‘speak for themselves’: Communication as a mediating force in wildlife tourism. Environmental Communication: A Journal of Nature and Culture 2(2): 173–192.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moscardo, G., Woods, B. & Saltzer, R. (2004). The role of interpretation in wildlife tourism. In Higginbottom, K. (Ed.), Wildlife Tourism: Impacts, management and planning. Altona, Vic: Common Ground/Sustainable Tourism CRC, pp. 231–251.Google Scholar
Muloin, S. (1998). Wildlife tourism: The psychological benefits of whale watching. Pacific Tourism Review 2: 199–212.Google Scholar
Neil, D.T., Orams, M.B. & Baglioni, A.J. (1996). Effect of previous whale watching experience on participants knowledge of, and response to, whales and whale watching. In Colgan, K., Prasser, S. & Jeffrey, A. (Eds), Encounters with Whales 1995 Proceedings. Hervey Bay, Queensland, 26–30 July 2005. Canberra: Australian Nature Conservation Agency, pp. 182–188.Google Scholar
Neves, K. (2010). Cashing in on cetourism: A critical ecological engagement with dominant E-NGO discourses on whaling, cetacean conservation, and whale watching. Antipode 42(3): 719–741.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O’Neill, F., Barnard, S. & Lee, D. (2004). Best Practice and Interpretation in Tourist/Wildlife Encounters: A wild dolphin swim tour example. Wildlife Tourism Research Report Series No. 25. Gold Coast: Sustainable Tourism CRC.Google Scholar
Orams, M.B. (1994). Creating effective interpretation for managing interaction between tourists and wildlife. Australian Journal of Environmental Education 10(2): 21–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Orams, M.B. (1995a). Towards a more desirable form of ecotourism. Tourism Management 16: 3–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Orams, M.B. (1995b). A conceptual model of tourist-wildlife interaction: The case for education as a management strategy. Australian Geographer 27(1): 39–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Orams, M.B. (1995c). Development and management of a feeding program for wild bottlenose dolphins at Tangalooma, Australia. Aquatic Mammals 21(2): 137–147.Google Scholar
Orams, M.B. (1995d). Using interpretation to manage nature-based tourism. Journal of Sustainable Tourism 4(2): 81–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Orams, M.B. (1996). Cetacean education: Can we turn tourists into ‘greenies’. In Colgan, K., Prasser, S. & Jeffrey, A. (Eds), Encounters with Whales 1995 Proceedings. Hervey Bay, Queensland, 26–30 July. Canberra: Australian Nature Conservation Agency, pp. 167–178.Google Scholar
Orams, M.B. (1997a). Historical accounts of human–dolphin interaction and recent developments in wild dolphin based tourism in Australasia. Tourism Management 18: 317–326.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Orams, M.B. (1997b). The effectiveness of environmental education: Can we turn tourists into ‘greenies’?Progress in Tourism and Hospitality Research 3: 295–306.3.0.CO;2-D>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Orams, M. (1999). Marine Tourism: Development, impacts and management. London: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Orams, M.B. (2000). Tourists getting close to whales, is it what whale watching is all about?Tourism Management 21: 561–569.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Orams, M. (2001). From whale hunting to whale watching in Tonga: A sustainable future?Journal of Sustainable Tourism 9(2), 128–146.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Orams, M.B. (2002). Feeding wildlife as a tourism attraction: A review of issues and impacts. Tourism Management 23: 281–293.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Orams, M. (2005). Dolphins, whales and ecotourism in New Zealand: What are the impacts and how should the industry be managed? In Hall, C.M. & Boyd, S. (Eds), Nature-based Tourism in Peripheral Areas: Development or disaster?Clevedon: Channel View, pp. 231–245.Google Scholar
Orams, M.B. & Hill, G.J.E. (1998). Controlling the ecotourist in a wild dolphin feeding program: Is education the answer? Journal of Environmental Education 29: 33–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
PWF (Pacific Whale Foundation) (2013). Whale or dolphin watch. Retrieved from (accessed 11 April 2013).
Parsons, E.C.M. & Draheim, M. (2009). A reason not to support whaling – A tourism impact case study from the Dominican Republic. Current Issues in Tourism 12(4): 397–403.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parsons, E.C.M. & Rawles, C.J.G. (2003). The resumption of whaling by Iceland and the potential negative impact in the Icelandic whale-watch market. Current Issues in Tourism 6(5): 444–448.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parsons, E.C.M. & Rose, N.A. (2009). Whale watching and the International Whaling Commission: A report of the 2008 whale-watching subcommittee meeting. Tourism in Marine Environments 6(1): 51–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parsons, E.C.M., Warburton, C.A., Woods-Ballard, A., et al. (2003). Whale-watching tourists in West Scotland. Journal of Ecotourism 2(2): 93–113.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peace, A. (2005). Loving leviathan: The discourse of whale-watching in Australian ecotourism. In Knight, J. (Ed.), Animals in Person: Cultural perspectives on human–animal intimacy. Oxford: Berg, pp. 191–210.Google Scholar
Peake, S. (2011). An industry in decline? The evolution of whale-watching tourism in Hervey Bay, Australia. Tourism in Marine Environments 7(3/4): 121–132.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peake, S., Innes, P. & Dyer, P. (2009). Ecotourism and conservation: Factors influencing effective conservation messages. Journal of Sustainable Tourism 17(1): 107–127.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ponnampalam, L.S. (2011). Dolphin watching in Muscat, Sultanate of Oman: Tourist perceptions and actual current practice. Tourism in Marine Environments 7(2): 81–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Porter, B. & Kaufman, M. (2009). Realizing the potential of marine naturalist interpreters as conduits of a mission. In Albers, A. & Myles, P.B. (Eds), Proceedings of CMT2009, the 6th International Congress on Coastal and Marine Tourism. Port Elizabeth: Kyle Business Projects, pp. 288–290.Google Scholar
Rawles, C.J.G. & Parsons, E.C.M. (2005). Environmental motivation of whale-watching tourists in Scotland. Tourism in Marine Environments 1(2): 129–132.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ris, M. (1993). Conflicting cultural values: Whale tourism in Norway. Arctic 46(2): 156–163.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Samuels, A., Bejder, L., Constantine, R. & Heinrich, S. (2003). Swimming with wild cetaceans, with a special focus on the southern hemisphere. In Gales, N., Hindell, M. & Kirkwood, R. (Eds), Marine Mammals: Fisheries, tourism and management issues. Collingwood, Vic: CSIRO, pp. 277–303.Google Scholar
Scarpaci, C. & Parsons, E.M.C. (2012). Recent advances in whale-watching research: 2010–11. Tourism in Marine Environments 8(3): 161–171.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Servais, V. (2005). Enchanting dolphins: An analysis of human–dolphin encounters. In Knight, J. (Ed.), Animals in Person: Cultural perspectives on human–animal intimacy. Oxford: Berg, pp. 211–230.Google Scholar
Shapiro, K.R. (2006). Whale watch passengers’ preferences for tour attributes and marine management in Maui, Hawai'i. Master of Resource Management Thesis, School of Resource and Environmental Management, Simon Fraser University.
Smith, A., Newsome, D., Lee, D. & Stoeckl, N. (2006). The Role of Wildlife Icons as Major Tourist Attractions – Case Studies: Monkey Mia Dolphins and Hervey Bay Whale Watching. Gold Coast: CRC for Sustainable Tourism.Google Scholar
Stamation, K. (2008). Understanding human–whale interactions: A multidisciplinary approach. Australian Zoologist 34: 211–224.Google Scholar
Stamation, K., Croft, D., Shaughnessy, P.D., Waples, K.A. & Briggs, S.V. (2007). Educational and conservation value of whale watching. Tourism in Marine Environments 4(1): 41–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Takei, A. (1998). A cross-cultural assessment of the effectiveness of the interpretive program at the dolphin provisioning program, Tangalooma, Australia. Diploma in Marine Science Thesis, University of Queensland.
Valentine, P.S., Birtles, A., Curnock, M., Arnold, P. & Dunstan, A. (2004). Getting closer to whales – Passenger expectations and experiences, and the management of swim with dwarf minke whale interactions in the Great Barrier Reef. Tourism Management 25: 647–655.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Warburton, C.A. (1999). Marine Wildlife Tourism and Whale-watching on the Island of Mull, West Scotland. Mull: The Hebridean Whale and Dolphin Trust.Google Scholar
Warburton, C.A., Parsons, E.C.M., Woods-Ballard, A., Hughes, A. & Johnston, P. (2001). Whale-watching in West Scotland. Mull: The Hebridean Whale and Dolphin Trust.Google Scholar
WDC (Whale and Dolphin Conservation) (2013). Whale watching. Retrieved from (accessed 11 April 2013).
Whales Alive (2009). Whale watching. Whales Alive. Retrieved from (accessed 11 April 2013).
Wiener, C.S., Needham, M.D. & Wilkinson, P.F. (2009). Hawaii's real life marine park: Interpretation and impacts of commercial marine tourism in the Hawaiian Islands. Current Issues in Tourism 12(5/6): 489–504.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilson, C. & Tisdell, C. (2003). Conservation and economic benefits of wildlife-based marine tourism: Sea turtles and whales as case studies. Human Dimensions of Wildlife 8(1): 49–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zeppel, H. (2008). Education and conservation benefits of marine wildlife tours: Developing free-choice learning experiences. The Journal of Environmental Education 39(3): 3–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zeppel, H. (2009). Managing swim with wild dolphin tourism in Australia: Guidelines, operator practices and research on impacts. In Carlsen, J., Hughes, M., Homes, K. & Jones, R. (Eds), Proceedings of the 18th Annual CAUTHE Conference. Perth, WA: Curtin University of Tech-nology.Google Scholar
Zeppel, H. & Muloin, S. (2008a). Marine wildlife tours: Benefits for participants. In Higham, J.E.S. & Luck, M. (Eds), Marine Wildlife and Tourism Management: Insights from the natural and social sciences. Wallingford: CABI, pp. 19–48.Google Scholar
Zeppel, H. & Muloin, S. (2008b). Education and conservation benefits of interpretation on marine wildlife tours. Tourism in Marine Environments 5(2/3): 215–228.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zeppel, H. & Muloin, S. (2008c). Conservation benefits of interpretation on marine wildlife tours. Human Dimensions of Wildlife 13: 280–294.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×