Historical Background: General

While the eastern Mediterranean and Near East were under the rule of Alexander's successors, the western Mediterranean was caught up in a struggle between two powers: Rome and Carthage. According to tradition, Rome was founded in 753 B.C.E., when a group of villages by the Tiber River united under the rule of a king. In 509 B.C.E., the last king was expelled and the Roman Republic was founded. Rome soon embarked on a campaign of expansion, first annexing adjacent territories (including Etruria [modern Tuscany] to the north and Campania to the south), and later expanding its control throughout Italy. By the third and second centuries B.C.E., Rome had begun to extend its reach beyond the Italian peninsula.

Rome's expansion brought it into conflict with Carthage in North Africa (modern Tunisia). Carthage was established in 814 B.C.E. as a Phoenician trading colony, but it soon became a wealthy and independent power, controlling much of the sea trade around the Mediterranean. During the third and second centuries B.C.E., Rome and Carthage became embroiled in series of conflicts called the Punic Wars (Punic comes from the Latin word for Phoenician). During the Second Punic War (218–202 B.C.E.), Carthage's forces were led by Hannibal, a brilliant general and military strategist (whose name contains the Phoenician theophoric “Bal” [Baal]). Although Hannibal gained notoriety for leading elephants with his army across the Alps (most of the elephants died during the crossing), his real success came from defeating the Roman army at several important battles around Italy, which demonstrated that Rome was not invincible and caused the desertion of key allies. Nevertheless, Rome rallied and the Second Punic War ended with Carthage's defeat at the battle of Zama (204 B.C.E.). After the battle, Hannibal took refuge with Antiochus III, the Seleucid king. A decade later (183 B.C.E.), after Antiochus III was defeated by Rome, Hannibal ended his life by taking poison.