The Struggle for the Eurasian Borderlands From the Rise of Early Modern Empires to the End of the First World War
Book contents
6 - Imperial legacies
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 05 June 2014
Summary
The wars and revolutions of the first two decades of the twentieth century that destroyed imperial rule have long been treated by historians as a series of ruptures in modern European history. Borderlands broke away from the imperial centers of power. Some followed the siren calls of national self-determination; elsewhere local warlords took regional control. The dynastic idea was dead or dying. The logic and structures of long-established internal markets and networks of transportation and communication were disrupted. The imperial armies disintegrated and their officer corps dispersed; in many cases former comrades-in-arms faced one another across disputed borders. New men, often from the margins of society or the military, rose to power, promoting new ideologies, or radical versions of the old. In the immediate postwar years, the peoples of the borderlands appeared to have taken their revenge for decades or centuries of imperial rule.
Placing too much emphasis on rupture, however, means running the risk of underestimating the legacies of imperial rule and ignoring the persistent factors that confronted the new ruling elites of the successor states. In this chapter historical legacy is employed to mean those elements of institutional, ideological, and cultural structures and practices that survived the demise of imperial rule. They show up most clearly in the nature of leadership and patterns of policy making, as well as in the policies themselves. Legacy in historical context is different from its legalistic meaning as something bequeathed to a successor without manifesting any alteration in its essential features. Historical change being what it is, legacy cannot be the literal equivalent of sameness. Burdened with legacies of imperial rule, the successors could not inscribe their solutions to the problems posed by persistent factors on a clean slate.
- Type
- Chapter
- Information
- The Struggle for the Eurasian BorderlandsFrom the Rise of Early Modern Empires to the End of the First World War, pp. 532 - 614Publisher: Cambridge University PressPrint publication year: 2014
References
, A Whole Empire Walking. Refugees in Russia during World War I (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1999), p. 3Google Scholar
, Jewish Policies and Right Wing Politics in Imperial Russia (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 1986);CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (eds.), Pogroms. Anti-Jewish Violence in Modern Russian History (Cambridge University Press, 1992)
, Nationalizing the Russian Empire. The Campaign against Enemy Aliens during World War I (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003)Google Scholar
, The Foe Within. Fantasies of Treason and the End of Imperial Russia (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2006)Google Scholar
, War in a European Borderland. Occupations and Occupation Plans in Galicia and Ukraine, 1914–1918 (Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press, 2007), pp. 6–7Google Scholar
, “Morale and Patriotism in the Austro-Hungarian Army,” in (ed.), State, Society and Mobilization in Europe During the First World War (Cambridge University Press, 1997), p. 176;Google Scholar
, “Galicia in Vienna. Jewish Refugees in the First World War,” Austrian History Yearbook 28 (1997): 113–30CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and , “Migration, Deportation, and Nation-Building. The Case of the Ottoman Empire,” in (ed.), Migrations et migrants dans une perspective historique. Permanences et innovations (Brussels: Peter Lang, 2000), pp. 281–84Google Scholar
, A Shameful Act. The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2006);Google Scholar
(ed.), The Armenian Genocide in Perspective (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1986)
, Armenia on the Road to Independence 1918 (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1967), pp. 48–55;Google Scholar
, Revolution and Genocide. On the Origins of the Armenian Genocide and the Holocaust (University of Chicago Press, 1992);Google Scholar
, Empires in Conflict. Armenia and the Great Powers, 1895–1920 (London: Tauris, 1995), pp. 93–94;Google Scholar
, The History of the Armenian Genocide. Ethnic Conflict from the Balkans to Anatolia and the Caucasus (Providence, RI: Berghahn, 1995)Google Scholar
, Shattering Empires. The Clash and Collapse of the Ottoman and Russian Empires, 1908–1918 (Cambridge University Press, 2011), p. 149CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, Looking Toward Ararat. Armenia in Modern History (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1993), pp. 106–15Google Scholar
, “Latvian Refugees and the Latvian Nation State during and after World War One,” in and (eds.), Homelands. War, Population, and Statehood in Eastern Europe and Russia, 1918–1924 (London: Anthem, 2004), pp. 35–53Google Scholar
, Cataclysm. The First World War as Political Tragedy (New York: Basic Books, 2004), esp. pp. 104–17, 289–92Google Scholar
, Okrain rossiikskoi imperii. Gosudarstvennoe upravlenie i natsional’naia politika v gody pervoi mirovoi voiny (1914–1917 gg.) (Moscow: Rosspen, 2004)Google Scholar
, “Who Composed ‘Sazonov’s Thirteen Points’? A Re-Examination of Russia’s War Aims of 1914,” American Historical Review 88(2) (April 1983): 347–57CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(ed.), Konstantinopol i prolivy po sekretnym documentam. Ministerstva inostrannykh del (Moscow: Litizdat NKID, 1925), Doc. 15, p. 222
, Das Zarische Russland und der Erst Weltkrieg. Diplomatie und Kriegsziele, 1914–1917 (Munich: Fink Verlag, 1982)Google Scholar
, The Russian Struggle for Power, 1914–1917. A Study of Russian Foreign Policy during the First World War (New York: Philosophical Library, 1956), pp. 46–48Google Scholar
, “War Aims toward Germany,” in Russian Diplomacy and Eastern Europe, 1914–1917 (New York: Kings Crown Press, 1963), pp. 139–42Google Scholar
, “German–Turkish Relations and the Outbreak of War in 1914. A Re-Assessment,” Past and Present 36 (April 1967): 144–52CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, The Russian Origins of the First World War (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2011)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, “Mirovaia voina politika Rossii v 1914–15 godakh,” in et al., Istoriia vneshnei politiki Rossii. Konets XIX–nachala XX veka (Moscow: Mezhdunarodnye otnosheniia, 1997), pp. 463–79Google Scholar
, “The Allies and Armenia, 1915–18,” Journal of Contemporary History 3(1) (January 1968): 145–68CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(ed.), Razdel Aziatskoi Turtsii po sekretnym dokumentam ministerstva inostrannykh del (Moscow: Ministerstvo inostrannykh del SSSR, 1924), pp. 157, 163–64
, Istoriia torgovo-ekonomicheskikh otnoshenii s Kitaem (do 1917) (Moscow: Nauka, 1974), p. 347;Google Scholar
, “Japan and Russia. The Changing Relationships, 1875–1917,” Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas, New Series, 10(3) (October 1962): 345–47Google Scholar
, Germany’s Aims in the First World War (New York: W. W. Norton, 1967), pp. 103–25, 231–36Google Scholar
, War Land on the Eastern Front. Culture, National Identity and German Occupation in World War I (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000);CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, The Impossible Border. Germany and the East, 1914–1922 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2010), esp. pp. 18–44Google Scholar
, István Tisza. The Liberal Vision and Conservative Statecraft of a Magyar Nationalist (New York: East European Monographs, 1985), pp. 203, 212–13, 222–23, 229Google Scholar
Count Stephen Tisza, Prime Minister of Hungary. Letters (1914–1916), trans. (New York: Peter Lang, 1991), pp. 168–74Google Scholar
, Der Tod des Doppeladlers. Österreich-Ungarn und der Erste Weltkrieg (Vienna: Verlag Styria, 1993), pp. 465–68Google Scholar
, Bulgaria 1878–1918. A History (Boulder, CO: East European Monographs, 1983), pp. 457–58Google Scholar
, The Lands of Partitioned Poland, 1795–1918 (Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press, 1974), p. 357Google Scholar
, “A High Price for Bread. The First Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and the Break-up of Austria Hungary, 1917–1918,” International History Review 19(4) (November 1997): 767CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, “Divided Loyalties. The German Reich and Austria-Hungary in Austro-German Discussions of War Aims, 1914–1916,” Central European History 17(2/3) (June–September 1984): 120–39CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, Polnische Nation und deutsche Politik in Ersten Weltkrieg (Cologne: Böhlau, 1958), p. 377Google Scholar
, The Ottoman Road to War in 1914. The Ottoman Empire and the First World War (Cambridge University Press, 2008)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, “Buffers, not Brethren. Young Turk Military Policy in the First World War and the Myth of Panturanism,” Past and Present 203 (May 2009): 137–79CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, Germany and the Ottoman Empire, 1914–1918 (Princeton University Press, 1968), pp. 38–39, 113–22, 194–99CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, “La politique des nationalités du gouvernement provisoire (Février–Octobre 1917),” Cahiers du monde russe et soviétique 2(2) (April–June 1961): 131–65CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, Soviet–American Relations, vol. II: The Decision to Intervene (Princeton University Press, 1958);CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, Joseph Piłsudski. A European Federalist, 1918–1922 (Stanford University Press, 1969), pp. 79–88Google Scholar
, Democratic Ideals and Reality. A Study in the Politics of Reconstruction (New York: Henry Holt, 1919), pp. 213, 200Google Scholar
, “Warlordism. Violence and Governance during the First World War and Civil War,” Contemporary European History 19(3) (August 2010): 195–213CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, “Landed Property, State Authority, and Civil War,” Slavic Review 47(1) (Spring 1988): 31–38CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, “The Ethnic Roots of Class Universalism. Rethinking the ‘Russian’ Revolutionary Elite,” American Journal of Sociology 114(3) (November 2008): 649–705CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, The Finnish Revolution 1917–18 (Minneapolis, MI: University of Minnesota Press, 1980)Google Scholar
, The Baltic World, 1772–1993. Europe’s Northern Periphery in an Age of Change (London: Longman, 1995), p. 279Google Scholar
, The Ukrainian–Polish Defensive Alliance, 1919–1921. An Aspect of the Ukrainian Revolution (Edmonton: University of Alberta Press, 1995), pp. 60–61Google Scholar
, Christian Social Ethics in Ukraine. The Legacy of Andrei Sheptytsky (Edmonton: University of Alberta Press, 1997);Google Scholar
(ed.), Morality and Reality. The Life and Times of Andrei Sheptyts’kyi (Edmonton: University of Alberta Press, 1989)
, “Diplomatic Relations between the Ottoman Empire and the Ukrainian Democratic Republic, 1918–21,” Middle Eastern Studies 34(4) (October 1998): 202CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, The Formation of the Soviet Union, rev. edn (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1970), pp. 184–90Google Scholar
, “The Russian Imperial Army and the Ukrainian National Movement in 1917,” Ukrainian Quarterly 54(3–4) (Fall–Winter 1998): 220–56Google Scholar
, “‘I Love Russia, and/but I Want Ukraine,’ or How a Russian General became Hetman of the Ukrainian State, 1917–18,” Journal of Ukrainian Studies 29(1–2) (Summer–Winter 2004): 123–35Google Scholar
, Narys istoriï Ukraiïny. Formuvannia modernoï ukraïns’koï natsiï XIX–XX stolittia (Kiev: Vyd-vo Heneza, 1996), pp. 127–34Google Scholar
, Making War, Forging Revolution. Russia’s Continuum of Crisis, 1914–1921 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002)Google Scholar
, Civil War in South Russia, 1919–1920 (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1977), pp. 227–33, 240–44Google Scholar
, The Making of a State. Memoirs and Observations, 1914–1918 (New York: Frederick A. Stokes, 1927), pp. 86–87Google Scholar
, The National Question in Yugoslavia. Origins, History, Politics (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1988), pp. 117–18, 124, 136Google Scholar
, Pašić and Trumbić. The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (London: Haus, 2010), pp. 24, 33Google Scholar
, “The Great War and the Yugoslav Grassroots. Popular Mobilization in the Habsburg Monarchy, 1914–18,” in and , New Perspectives on Yugoslavia. Key Issues and Controversies (London: Routledge, 2011), pp. 27–45Google Scholar
, “South Slav Prisoners of War in Revolutionary Russia,” in and (eds.), Essays on World War I. Origins and Prisoners of War (New York: Social Science Monographs, Brooklyn College Press, 1983), pp. 123–40Google Scholar
, Serbia’s Great War, 1914–1918 (West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press, 2007), pp. 167–69, 248–50, 260–61, 275, 303Google Scholar
, “Post-Imperial and Post-War Violence in the South Slav Lands, 1917–1923,” Contemporary European History 19(3) (August 2010): 251–54CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, The National Question in Yugoslavia. Origins, History, Politics, corrected edn (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1988), pp. 115–40Google Scholar
, POWs and the Great War. Captivity on the Eastern Front (Oxford University Press, 2002), pp. 12–14, 32–33, 117, 124Google Scholar
, The Czechoslovak Legion in Russia 1914–1920 (Boulder, CO: East European Monographs, 1991)Google Scholar
, Carpatho-Ukraine in the Twentieth Century. A Political and Legal History (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997), pp. 8–10Google Scholar
, My Diary at the Conference of Paris, with Documents (New York: Appeal Printing, 1925), p. 227Google Scholar
, Cultural Politics in Greater Romania (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1995), pp. 52–59Google Scholar
, “Peacemaking after World War I,” in (ed.), The Hungarians. A Divided Nation (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1988), p. 36.Google Scholar
, Citizenship, Nation and State Building. The Integration of Northern Dobrogea into Romania, 1873–1913, Carl Beck Papers, No. 1607 (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Center for Russian and East European Studies, 2002)Google Scholar
, National Minorities in Romania. Change in Transylvania (Boulder, CO: East European Monographs, 1982), pp. 22–23, 34–35, 56–57, 60–61Google Scholar
, The Bolshevik Revolution 1917–1923, 3 vols. (New York: Macmillan, 1953), vol. III, pp. 72–76CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, “The Origins of Czechoslovak Communism,” in (ed.), The Effects of World War I. The Class War after the Great War: The Rise of Communist Parties in East Central Europe, 1918–1921 (Boulder, CO: East European Monographs, 1983), pp. 58–60Google Scholar
in Geschichte und Literatur 6 (1997): 385–403
, “Ottoman Prisoners of War in Russia, 1914–1922,” Journal of Contemporary History 34 (1999): 81Google Scholar
, “The Russian Revolution and the Rumanian Socialist Movement, 1917–1918,” Slavic Review 27(2) (1968): 271–75Google Scholar
, Russia and Azerbaizhan. A Borderland in Transition (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995), pp. 62–64Google Scholar
, On the Religious Frontier. Tsarist Russia and Islam in the Caucasus (London: Tauris, 2006), pp. 143–44Google Scholar
, The Republic of Armenia, vol 1: The First Year, 1918–1919 (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1971), p. 262Google Scholar
, The Making of the Georgian Nation (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1988), p. 187Google Scholar
, Revoliutsiia 1917 goda v Zakavkazii. Dokumenty, materialy (Tiflis: Zakkniga, 1927), pp. 66–67Google Scholar
and (eds.), Entsiklopedicheskii slovar’, vol. XVII (1896), p. 135
“Erivan,” Entsiklopedicheskii slovar’, vol. XLI (1904), p. 14
, Der Feind ist überall. Stalinismus im Kaukasus (Munich: Deutsche Verlag-Anstadt, 2003), p. 138Google Scholar
, The Struggle for Transcaucasia, 1917–1921 (New York: Philosophical Library, 1951), pp. 147–53, 157–62Google Scholar
, A Clash of Empires. Turkey between Russian Bolshevism and British Imperialism, 1918–1923 (London: Tauris, 1997), pp. 81–88Google Scholar
, Qajar Iran and the Rise of Reza Khan, 1796–1925 (Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda, 1999), pp. 68–69Google Scholar
, The Soviet Socialist Republic of Iran, 1920–21. The Birth of the Trauma (Pittsburgh, PA: Pittsburgh University Press, 1994), pp. 88–89Google Scholar
, “Imperial Power and Dictatorship. Britain and the Rise of Reza Shah, 1921–1926,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 24 (1992): 642–43Google Scholar
, “Rebellion and Social Change,” International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 13 (1981): 35–53CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(ed.), “Reza Shah and the Paradoxes of Military Modernization in Iran, 1921–1941,” in The Making of Modern Iran. State and Society under Riza Shah, 1921–1941 (London: Routledge, 2003), pp. 37–64
, “Conscription and Popular Resistance in Iran, 1925–1941,” International Review of Social History 43(3) (December 1998): 451–71CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, “Mudarris, Republicanism and the Rise to Power of Reza Khan, Sardar-I Sipah,” British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 21(2) (1994): 199–210CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, A History of Chinese Political Thought, vol. 1: From the Beginnings to the Sixth Century A.D., trans. (Princeton University Press, 1979)Google Scholar
, The Power of the Gun. The Emergence of Modern Chinese Warlordism (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1993)Google Scholar
, China in Disintegration. The Republican Era in Chinese History (New York: Free Press, 1975), pp. 98–101Google Scholar
, The Manchurian Frontier in Ch’ing History (Cambridge University Press, 1970), pp. 130–31CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and , “Political History and Strategies of Control, 1884–1978,” in (ed.), Xinjiang. China’s Muslim Borderland (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 2004), pp. 68–71, quotation on p. 69Google Scholar
, “Russia, China, and the Origins of the Mongolian People’s Republic, 1911–1921,” Slavonic and East European Review 58 (July 1980): 409–13Google Scholar
Aziatskaia Rossiia, 3 vols. (St. Petersburg: A. F. Marks, 1914), vol. I, pp. 178–99, 383
, Road to Power. The Trans-Siberian Railroad and the Colonization of Asian Russia, 1850–1917 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1991), pp. 16–17Google Scholar
, Imperialisticheskaia interventsiia v Sibirii i na Dal’nem Vostoke (1918–1922) (Novosibirsk: Nauka, 1983), pp. 116, 179–80, 185–88, 200–4Google Scholar