In Part One we surveyed certain prominent aspects of the military history of the Sokoto Caliphate from its inception until its conquest by the British. We noted that (1) during the jihad period the Muslim armies were composed largely of foot soldiers; (2) during the mid-nineteenth century a more complex military organization was evolved to accommodate the increasing use of cavalry forces; and (3) in the late nineteenth century the introduction of firearms, the formation of new corps of slave musketeers commanded by slave officers, and the creation of regular standing armies constituted an incipient revolution in the technology, organization, and techniques of warfare.

It is possible therefore to distinguish three stages in the evolution of military organization in the Sokoto Caliphate, each stage being characterized by a peculiar weapon complex, mode of organization, and tactical methods. During the jihad period (c. 1790–1817) the bow and arrow was the principal weapon, infantry units were the basis of military organization, and long-range fighting with reliance on firepower was the usual method of warfare. During the second phase (c. 1817–1860) swords, spears, and lances comprised the predominant weapon complex, light cavalry supported by specialized infantry units was the basic mode of army organization, and close combat with reliance on shock effect was the common tactical method. And finally, the third stage (c. 1860–1903) was characterized by the increasing use of firearms, a reversion to infantry forces as the fundamental element of military organization, and a concomitant return to the tactical supremacy of firepower in long-range combat.