Applying new technology in our society is invariably a challenge, and those who try do not always succeed. New technologies are frequently of large scale, involve significant environmental or social consequences and must adhere to a complex framework of governmental rules and regulations whose economic impact may be far-reaching. Issues such as opposition to nuclear power, concern over the environmental effects of burning coal, the ethical dilemmas of stem cell research, and the threats to privacy, intellectual property, and even national security associated with the growing use of the Internet fill the daily newspapers. Learning how to manage the often-competing interests that come into play when new technologies are deployed in society will be increasingly important, especially for scientists and engineers whose professional lives are dedicated to the task of harnessing technology for economic and social ends.

Today the education of scientists and engineers in U.S. universities is still strongly influenced by the conventional view of technological innovation as a linear process. In this view, innovation proceeds through distinct stages: (1) research – the first step of knowledge creation, usually by scientists in a laboratory; (2) development – the step of reducing the knowledge to practice, normally the responsibility of the engineer; and (3) application – the crucial step of implementing a technology, mainly the province of nontechnical professionals, such as managers, financiers, lawyers, politicians, or public-interest advocates. Scientific and engineering education is organized according to this linear perspective.