So far we have explored address in our four languages as a whole without focusing on differences between national varieties. This chapter is largely devoted to variation in perceptions and use of address forms in some national varieties of German, Swedish and English. As national variation in these three languages takes different forms, the content of the sections on the three languages will not be readily comparable. We begin with the customary reminder that the English data are limited and serve as a point of reference.

The chapter opens with an overview of the national varieties that form part of our investigation, followed by a comparative analysis of modes of address in the countries under study. We then turn to address in letters and the national variation discernible, as well as general awareness of national variation. The chapter concludes with an examination of the impact of language contact on address and the influence of address choices in business and multinational companies on national address practices.

National varieties

German in Germany and Austria, and the former East–West division

Variation between the Austrian and German national varieties of Standard German results from separate cultural and sociopolitical development, especially from the late eighteenth century and including the formation of separate states (1871, 1918, 1945). After a conflict between the pan-German and pro-independence elements in Austria, the post-World War II years were characterised by increasing national consciousness and the acceptance of the notion of an independent Austrian nation.