I. The confusing events

It all began in 1856 with Thomas Kennedy, an Irishman from Belfast who nominally captained the Chinese crew of a lorcha called the Arrow. The lorcha had been built in China by a Chinese, owned by a Chinese, and sold to another Chinese. But to protect the ship from the Chinese authorities, a register had been obtained by paying the necessary fees to the British government in Hong Kong and Kennedy had been employed as the nominal captain.

Why was British protection necessary? An old China hand offered some clues. These vessels, he said, were well known by both the Chinese government and foreigners to be manned by inveterate smugglers. Generally these ships were very heavily armed and had a most formidable looking appearance. ‘Oftentimes the peaceful inhabitants in the little towns on the coast have complained bitterly to me of the lawless and tyrannical acts of their crews’, he added. ‘Are these crews to be allowed to commit all sorts of offences against their own government and people and then point to the flag of England … as their protection and as their warrant?’ he asked. In the case of the Arrow, it was subsequently proved that she had been engaged at least in receiving stolen goods.