the ottoman empire

The decisions of the congress of berlin greatly reduced the Ottoman territories in the Balkan peninsula. Although the ability to control the domestic politics of Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro had long been lost, the fact that these states were still part of the empire had given prestige to the Porte as well as some practical advantages in foreign relations. In addition, Thessaly, a part of Epirus, and lands bordering on Serbia and Montenegro had been surrendered. Bulgaria, Eastern Rumelia, Bosnia, Hercegovina, and the Sanjak of Novi Pazar, still under Ottoman suzerainty, were no longer under the direct authority of Constantinople. Nevertheless, despite these severe losses, the empire held extensive Macedonian and Albanian territories, most of Epirus, and Thrace. Hope was also never abandoned that the Habsburg occupation of Bosnia-Hercegovina might at some time be ended and these provinces returned. The question facing the Ottoman government was how the remaining possessions could best be administered and defended against further claims from either the Balkan people or the great powers.

The sultan at the time, Abdul Hamid II, had come to the throne in 1876 at the age of thirty-four at a time of revolution and war. He had seen his two predecessors removed by palace revolts, and he had been forced to wage war with the Balkan states and with Russia during his first year in power. These events obviously made a deep impression on his attitude toward the powers and those around him.