Introduction

Actors in the realm of international relations are regularly faced with normative questions. They are often called upon to decide what, given the specific situation, would be the right thing to do. The problem is not, or not only, the one of deciding upon the best means to an approved end; in other words, the problem is not purely technical. The moral problem is to choose the ends to be pursued and to decide upon what means might legitimately be used in pursuit of those ends.

As I indicated earlier such questions press most heavily on key decision-makers in government, but not all actors in world politics are office bearers in government. Most of us are actors in world politics in one capacity or another. Individuals, whether as ordinary citizens or as members of some non-governmental organization (such as a church, multinational corporation, international agency or welfare organization) also have to make important normative decisions relating to international relations. I mention but three. Citizens called upon by their governments to fight in a war (be it a conventional war or a counter-insurgency war) are often faced with difficult choices regarding their obligations. Ought they to agree to fight, ought they to refuse to fight or ought they to protest against the order to serve in some other way? Shareholders are called upon by certain pressure groups to influence a given company to withdraw its investment from a specific state for moral or political reasons.