In the last chapter I examined the reasons for Marx's commitment to the development of the productive forces in order to ascertain whether his theory commits him to ecologically damaging forms of productive development, or whether, on the other hand, the effects that he attributes to the development of the productive forces can be achieved by ecologically benign forms of technological development. Two such effects were identified: the Undermining Effect whereby development of the productive forces undermines the viability of existing social forms, and the Enabling Effect where by productive development makes possible the establishment of new social forms. The Undermining Effect, I argued, gives us no reason to attribute to Marx a commitment to ecologically damaging forms of productive development. The implications of the Enabling Effect, however, were less clear.Marx's view of communist society as a society of increased leisure provides a reason for thinking that forms of productive development designed to reduce labour time rather than forms designed to increase material production will be called for; but, in the German Ideology and particularly in the Critique of the Gotha Programme, Marx argues that an ‘abundance’ of material wealth will be necessary for the establishment of a communist society.