Historical Background

On November 27, 1904, the thirteenth Dalai Lama arrived in the (Outer) Mongolian capital of Urga almost three months after fleeing Lhasa to avoid capture by invading British-Indian forces. He was, at least initially, greeted with tremendous acclaim; the Mongolians were notably devout followers of Tibetan Buddhism, which is the primary institutionalized religion in eastern Central Asia. Like most Tibetans, most Mongols were followers of the Gelukpa (dge lugs pa) sect, of which the Dalai Lama is the most prominent spiritual figure.

However, Outer Mongolia—which was broadly equivalent to modern independent Mongolia—already had its own Gelukpa hierarch. This position originated in 1639, when Zanabazar (1635–1723), the son of a Khalkha Mongol leader, became the head of the Gelukpa order in their polity. Ten years later Zanabazar visited Tibet, where he was identified by the Dalai and Panchen Lamas as the reincarnation of the Tibetan scholar Tāranātha and given the title by which he and his successors were known: Jebtsundamba Khutugtu (Tib: rje btsun dam pa hu thug tu; “Venerable Excellent Incarnation”).

Zanabazar's incarnation Luvsandambiydonmi (1724–1758) was also found among the Mongol elites, but after he was suspected of supporting a rebellion against the Qing Empire in 1757–1758, the Manchu Emperor decreed that all future incarnations must be found in Tibet. A succession of (apparently non-elite) Tibetan-born youths were subsequently identified and sent to Urga to inherit the Jebtsundamba Khutugtu throne.

The Qing Empire (1644–1912) was established by Manchu Jurchen clans, who had ancestral links with the Mongols. Like the earlier Mongol Yuan dynasty (c1215-1368), the Manchus patronized—if not adopted—Tibetan Buddhism. Indeed, their authority over the religion became central to their imperial strategies. During the seventeenth century they instituted a series of marital alliances with Mongolian elites that resulted in neutralizing the power of the Chahar and other Mongol clans in the eastern realms, dividing their lands and fracturing their political unity. As the Qing expanded their empire westwards, they divided Mongolian territory into two realms: Inner Mongolia, which was administered by the Lifanyuan (Ministry for Outer Regions), and Outer Mongolia, which was indirectly dealt with via Qing-appointed military governors.