We now move towards a fuller account of regulation, exploring factors and features that shape choices. First we discuss structural factors and oppression and explain why we favour the idea of modes of regulation. This builds on comments about structure in the preceding chapters. The next section then reviews social control, support and the management of consumption in the welfare state. Third, we address briefly the topic of ideologies, discourses and language. There is then a discussion of citizenship, followed by a short concluding comment. This chapter focuses less specifically on housing than Chapter Four. Although it is important to connect with particular material relevant to social policy and housing rather than becoming mired in a long discussion about vocabulary and meaning (cf Giddens, 1984, pp 16-37), the present chapter is theoretically inclined. An assumption is that structural factors can be traced in a range of specific settings, and through looking at regulatory practices in particular. Processes of social regulation (the term adopted here) reflect various influences and forces connected with the broader economy, social stratification, racisms, patriarchy and so forth. Regulation also responds to grass roots agency in several manifestations, including social welfare movements.

Structural factors, oppression and social regulation

Chapters One and Two noted the positive or supportive potential of structural factors as well as effects in terms of constraints. By writing about structural matters in the social policy arena we are usually implying significant social, political and economic features which enter into daily events with a measure of continuity over time and place, and may influence, constrain or facilitate a range of actions. They are factors which help to structure choices, events, perceptions and behaviour, or frame decisions. They include institutional factors which influence some outcomes in housing, and forces which order relationships, set, operate and are manifested in rules, help maintain popular stereotypes, and even condition identities. Structural factors to some extent reflect, confirm, embody, manifest and operationalise the interests of the strong more than the weak.

In Chapter One we mentioned economic constraints at governmental level derived from external global markets. These could be portrayed as ‘structural imperatives’ restraining a succession of individual governments, apparently making expenditure on social welfare difficult.