The middle of the fifteenth century suggests a moment when the power of the offensive seemed unusually dominant. In the year that Constantinople fell, the armies of France with their newly powerful and effectively organised artillery completed the expulsion of the English with remarkable speed. Yet even now, there was evidence that the equilibrium between attack and defence was again about to be restored, in the failed Ottoman attack on Belgrade, or the successful defence of Neuss nineteen years later. We have examined the significant progress in the quality, quantity and in particular in the organisation of artillery achieved by the middle of the century. In response there was a continuing adaptation of defences to cope with the threat of the gun, both in the nature of the defences, and the skills now called for in commanders of garrisons. Likewise, attack and defence of towns and fortresses continued to be increasingly expensive in resources. The cost of the large numbers of people needed to sustain an army in the field, and their equipment and supplies, had long been a component in the consolidation of central government power, and warfare was a prime mover in the establishment of bureaucratic apparatuses. Successful states were now richer and better (or at least, more) governed states, and fewer and fewer were the lesser landowners able to challenge a prince militarily : although both landowners and cities were among those who took the drastic step of rebellion during this time.

The Metz campaign of 1444

The imperial city of Metz found itself in conflict with Rene, duke of Lorraine, claiming to be its overlord, who was also duke of Anjou and a cousin of Charles VII of France. The latter having now concluded a truce with the English, found himself at liberty to assist Rene, as well as having to find immediate employment for the hordes of unemployed soldiers in his kingdom. But Metz was no easy target. Its successful resistance to the attack of 1324–5 was described earlier. The defences of 1444 are better known, and were substantial, although little now survives. No fewer than 43 towers projected from the ramparts, which were fronted around two thirds of the city by the rivers Moselle and Seille. Each tower was named after the craft or trade whose organisation took responsibility for its upkeep.