Introduction

On 24 October 1428 the commander of the English army besieging Orléans, the earl of Salisbury, whilst observing the city from the newly captured fortification of the Tourelles, received a mortal injury as a result of a cannon-ball striking a wooden ledge which forced a fragment of wood into his face, and died eight days later. The loss of England's leading commander was a critical event for the eventual outcome of the siege. By 8 May, under the inspired leadership of Joan of Arc, the French were able to lift the siege of Orléans. This was undoubtedly a turning point in the war. As the earl of Salisbury experienced to his cost, artillery was increasingly important by 1428. However, relatively little evidence survives for gunpowder weapons in English armies in the early fifteenth century. This is largely due to the lack of surviving records for the Tower of London, the chief arsenal for the royal ordnance. Fortunately, extensive archival evidence survives in Exchequer records for the expedition of 1428, which culminated in the siege of Orléans. This includes the earliest known set of accounts for artillery for a fifteenth-century English expeditionary army: The National Archives, Exchequer Accounts Various, E101/51/27 and E101/51/30. This material permits major insights into the provision and transportation of artillery. It shows that substantial resources were invested in the creation of gunpowder weapons and that their potential importance in warfare was recognized. It is therefore of crucial importance in understanding how English gunpowder weapons developed during the reign of Henry VI.

Background

The year 1428 can be seen as the high-water mark of English success in France. Henry V's military successes in France, including victory at the battle of Agincourt and his conquest of Normandy, culminated in the Treaty of Troyes in 1420. By this treaty Henry V became heir to Charles VI, king of France. This was contested by the Dauphin Charles and his Armagnac supporters. The treaty committed Henry and his supporters to continue the war until the Armagnacs were defeated. This necessitated extensive military expenditure and campaigning, using troops within France and Burgundy, as well as expeditionary armies from England.