The referendum in Scotland and the non-binding unofficial consultation in Catalonia dominated the two entities’ political agendas in 2013–14. Despite their different natures and legal statuses, the two votes radically changed their respective political debates, triggered massive media and academic interest, and constituted momentous events that have successfully reframed (or even completely altered) understandings of nationalism in ‘quiet times’ (Beissinger, 2002). ‘In both cases, the unexpectedly high participation of civil society in the campaigns propelled territorial issues to the top of the political agenda, causing great polarisation’ (Alonso, forthcoming).

This chapter focuses on the framing strategies in the Scottish and Catalan mobilisation campaigns, analysing their content, messages and arguments, and identifying the multiple dimensions of the issue at stake. Although the nature of the referendum vote is often dichotomous (Yes/in favour or No/against), referendum issues nonetheless tend to be multifaceted (de Vreese and Semetko, 2004: 3).

As argued in the previous chapters, institutional contexts and political cultures differ remarkably across the two cases. However, there are some similarities between the two referendum campaigns in terms of framing, which seem to derive from the very nature of the mobilisation from below. In both cases, redistributive and democratic issues were emphasised over traditional ethnonationalist concerns. Frame bridging between independence and sovereignty, on the one hand, and social claims such as social justice and the renewal of democracy, on the other, were important in both contexts. Moreover, in both campaigns a general evolution of master frames shifted towards more radical positions, from devolution to independence.

More broadly, in historical terms, the main contribution of the two mobilisation campaigns consists of overcoming traditional identity frames and the central role of the democratic-emancipatory discourse, which resonated with expressions of discontent regarding the political and socioeconomic crises. The chapter shows the emergence of this innovative frame linked to self-determination; the importance of frame bridging (Snow and Bedford, 1988a), both at a substantial level (between the issue at stake in the referendum and broader values and claims traditionally addressed by left-wing social movements) and at a procedural level (in relation to participation and deliberative democracy); and the role of social movement organisations and citizens, leading the campaign, producing messages from below and developing imaginative initiatives going beyond the logic of electoral competition.