Accurate clay mineral identification is key to understanding past aqueous activity on Mars, but martian phyllosilicates are old (>3.5 Ga) and have been heavily bombarded by meteoroid impacts. Meteoroid impacts can alter clay mineral structures and spectral signatures, making accurate remote sensing identifications challenging. This paper uses nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy to examine the short-range structural deformation induced in clay mineral samples of known composition by artificial impacts and calcination. Structural changes are then related to changes in the visible-near infrared (VNIR) and mid-infrared (MIR) spectra of these clay mineral samples. The susceptibility of phyllosilicates to structural deformation after experimental impacts varies by structure. Experimental results showed that trioctahedral, Mg(II)-rich saponite was structurally resilient up to peak pressures of 39.8 GPa and its unchanged post-impact spectra reflected this. Experimental data on kaolinite showed that this Al(III)-rich, dioctahedral phyllosilicate was susceptible to structural alteration at peak pressures ⩾ 25.1 GPa. This result is similar to previously reported experimental results on the Fe(III)-rich dioctahedral smectite nontronite, suggesting that dioctahedral phyllosilicates may be more susceptible to shock-induced structural deformation than trioctahedral phyllosilicates. The octahedral vacancies present in dioctahedral phyllosilicates may drive this increased susceptibility to deformation relative to trioctahedral phyllosilicates with fully occupied octahedral sheets. Thermal alteration accompanies shock in meteoroid impacts, but shock differs from thermal alteration. NMR spectroscopy showed that structural deformation in thermally altered phyllosilicates differs from that found in shocked phyllosilicates. Similar to shock, dioctahedral phyllosilicates are also more susceptible to thermal alteration. This differential susceptibility to impact-alteration may help explain generic smectite identifications from heavily bombarded terrains on Mars.

Dyes are toxic and considered to be extremely hazardous to natural environments. Hence, adsorbents to remove dyes from contaminated water are needed. To develop adsorbents with a high adsorption capacity for different dyes, easy separation, and low cost, a novel dye adsorbent was prepared by activating fly ash with NaOH. The adsorbent morphology, structure, and specific surface area were characterized using scanning electron microscopy, X-ray powder diffraction, and surface area measurements using N2 adsorption-desorption. The adsorption abilities of the synthesized adsorbents were examined based on methylene blue and acid fuchsin adsorption from water. The capabilities of the adsorbents as a function of adsorbent use, dye type, dye concentration, time, and pH were investigated and compared. The results for methylene blue and acid fuchsin adsorption were modeled using pseudo-second order kinetics and the Langmuir adsorption isotherm, respectively. These modified adsorbents synthesized from fly ash may provide a promising solution to purify dye-contaminated waste water with the advantages of high efficiency and low cost.

At present, no production of zeolites is ongoing in Colombia; thus, because of the high demand in the industrial sector, ~2500 tons is imported annually from other countries such as Cuba, Ecuador, Mexico, and the United States. In order minimize the need for these costly imports, the present study sought to evaluate the viability of producing low-silica zeolites through the hydrothermal synthesis of a Colombian kaolin, which contains quartz (40%) and iron-oxide impurities. The kaolin was subjected to a milling process to reduce the particle size to the order of 11 μm, and was heat treated to transform it to metakaolin. Optimization of the synthesis variables (Na2O/SiO2 and H2O/Al2O3 ratios, time, and temperature) was accomplished by applying an experimental design based on the ‘Response Surface Methodology’ technique. The degree of crystallinity and the cation exchange capacity (CEC) were used as response variables. The CEC was determined from the NTC 5167 standard. In addition, the mineralogical composition and the zeolite microstructure were evaluated using techniques such as scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, and solid state nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. The results indicated that synthetic type A zeolites with a CEC value of 442 cmol(+)/kg can be obtained from the Colombian kaolin, with the following optimal processing conditions: Na2O/SiO2 molar ratio of 2.7, H2O/Al2O3 molar ratio of 150, temperature = 66°C, and processing time = 8 h. Note that this value (442 cmol(+)/kg) is greater than that reported for an imported commercial zeolite (408 cmol(+)/kg) of the same type, which is currently being used in industry in Colombia. The nationwide availability of the raw material and the quality of the final product present opportunities to make this material available to the Colombian market.

The pollution of soils by organic contaminants, such as phenols, is a serious problem because of the high toxicity and persistence in the environment. Mechanochemical treatments (MTs) of polluted soils with minerals, such as clays and oxides, which have surfaces that exhibit catalytic properties, have been suggested to be a new useful strategy to promote both organic and inorganic pollutant degradation. Nevertheless, much still remains to be studied about the capability of clays to promote pollutant removal by means of the mechanochemical activation of the mineral surfaces. This work investigates the efficiency of the mineral kaolinite in promoting the sequestration of catechol (CAT) and pentachlorophenol (PCP) by MT. A well crystallized kaolinite (KGa-1b) was milled for prolonged times with different amounts of organic molecules so as to obtain two different clay:organic compound ratios. Prolonged grinding and a higher clay mineral:organic compound ratio were found to be more effective in promoting a stronger removal than simple contact. After 1 h of mechanochemical treatment, the PCP and CAT removal percentages were 32% and 20%, respectively. Additionally, a 7-day undisturbed incubation of the milled mixtures produced a trend for increased CAT removal (up to 40%). The interaction mechanism between kaolinite and each organic compound (i.e. CAT and PCP) after a MT was inferred by integrating information from spectroscopic, diffractometric, and chromatographic analyses. X-ray diffraction and Fourier-transform infrared data suggested a strong interaction between CAT and KGa-1b. This interaction mechanism likely occurs through the formation of an inner-sphere complex by H-bonding between the organic molecules and the oxygens of the kaolinite tetrahedral sheet. On the other hand, a weak interaction (i.e. van der Waals type) can occur between the KGa-1b O-planes and the PCP molecules, which likely bind to the external surfaces of KGa-1b.

Aiming to identify the complexing mechanisms of heavy metal cations on edge surfaces of 2:1-type clay minerals, systemic first-principles molecular dynamics (FPMD) simulations were conducted and the microscopic structures and complex free energies were obtained. Taking Cd(II) as a model cation, the structures on both (010) and (110) edges of the complexes were derived for the three possible binding sites (≡SiO, ≡Al(OH)2/≡AlOH≡AlSiO, and vacant sites). The stable complexes adsorbed on the three binding sites on both terminations had similar structures. The free energies of the complexes on (010) edges were calculated by using the constrained FPMD method. The free energies of complexes on the ≡SiO and ≡Al(OH)2 sites were similar and they were both significantly lower than the free energy of the complex on the octahedral vacant site. In association with the concept of high energy site (HES) and low energy site (LES) in the 2 Site Protolysis Non Electrostatic Surface Complexation and Cation Exchange (2SPNE SC/CE) sorption model, the vacant site was assigned to HES and the other two sites to LES, respectively.

Previous studies of dispersant—aqueous kaolin dispersions have indicated clearly that the concentration of the dispersant determines the type of rheological behavior. Those studies focused on the use of dispersant concentrations below the limit of saturation, ignoring what might have happened at concentrations above that limit, and the practical uses to which such information might be put. The present study examined the influence of sodium hexametaphosphate dispersant on the viscous and viscoelastic properties of aqueous kaolin dispersions when its concentration was greater than the saturation limit. A concentric-cylinders geometry sensor system (with a narrow gap between the cylinders) was used to test the rheological behavior of Na hexametaphosphate-aqueous kaolin dispersions. Aqueous kaolin dispersions were viscoplastic, thixotropic, and viscoelastic fluids. The analysis of frequency sweep tests in the linear viscoelastic limit and steady-flow curves led to the conclusion that an increase in the dispersant concentration above the limit of saturation gave way to ‘solid-like’ dispersions.

Bentonite is considered as an ideal buffer/backfill material for preparing an engineering barrier for high-level radioactive waste (HLW) disposal. During initial sample preparation, the tendency of wet bentonite powder to gather into large agglomerates and the water to be spread unevenly in the traditional water content adjustment process decreases the homogeneity of compacted bentonite. The main purpose of this study was to solve this problem by applying a new wetting method, which mixes ice powder with bentonite powder (the ice-bentonite mixing method). This new method was used to adjust the water distribution in Gaomiaozi County, China (GMZ) bentonite powder and was compared to the traditional spray method. The screening method was used to separate macro-agglomerates (≥ 0.25 mm) from the water and bentonite mixture. The properties, the content of the various size agglomerates in loose mixtures, and the heterogeneity defects observed in compacted bentonite were compared. An index (P) was defined to quantitatively evaluate the water distribution in a loose bentonite/water mixture. Macro-agglomerates in loose mixtures produced heterogeneities in water content, density, and shrinkage. By using the ice-bentonite mixing method, fewer macro-agglomerates were formed and a homogeneous distribution of water was produced in the compacted bentonite. A homogeneous water distribution had the tendency to decrease the number of shrinkage cracks after the drying process and to maintain high mechanical strength in the compacted bentonite. Although the production of ice powder was laborious, the ice-bentonite mixing method has workability advantages: (i) a high mixing efficiency, (ii) a low mass loss rate, and (iii) a small deviation between measured water content and target water content. The low thawing efficiency of ice-bentonite mixtures can be solved by using a microwave-assisted thawing method. This research can improve the sample preparation method used to produce compacted buffer/backfill materials for HLW disposal.

Freshwater ferromanganese nodules (FFN) from Green Bay, Lake Michigan have been investigated by X-ray powder diffraction (XRD), micro X-ray fluorescence (XRF), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM), and scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM). The samples can be divided into three types: Mn-rich nodules, Fe-Mn nodules, and Fe-rich nodules. The manganese-bearing phases are todorokite, birnessite, and buserite. The iron-bearing phases are feroxyhyte, goethite, 2-line ferrihydrite, and proto-goethite (intermediate phase between feroxyhyte and goethite). The XRD patterns from nodule cross sections suggest the transformation of birnessite to todorokite. The TEM-EDS spectra show that todorokite is associated with Ba, Co, Ni, and Zn; birnessite is associated with Ca and Na; and buserite is associated with Ca. The todorokite has an average chemical formula of Ba0.28p2+(Zn0.14p+2Co0.05p3+Ni0.02p2+) (Mn4.99p4+Mn0.82p3+Fe0.12p3+Co0.05p3+Ni0.02p2+) O12·nH2O. Barium is the main cation in the structural tunnels of the todorokite. The average chemical formula of birnessite and Ca-buserite are: Na0.14p+Ca0.19p2+(Mn1.48p4+Mn0.52p3+0.52) O4·nH2O and Ca0.27p2+(Mn1.46p4+Mn0.54p3+)O4·nH2O, respectively. Most nodules have a concretionary structure of alternating Fe/Mn layers, commonly with a core of reddish feldspar containing phyllosilicates and hematite micro-crystals. Other cores consist of goethite, cristobalite, tridymite, hercynite, hematite-bearing quartz, coal, and chlorite-bearing rock fragments. The hexagonal or hexagonal-like structures of hematite micro-crystals and clay minerals in the cores may serve as heterogeneous nucleation sites for the Mn-oxides and Fe-(oxyhydr)oxides. The alternating Fe/Mn layers in FFNs might be caused by oscillatory redox condition fluctuations at the sediment-water interface due to changes in water level.

In order to elucidate the process of mineralization of clay minerals in fault gouge and its spatial-temporal relationship with fault-zone evolution and hydrothermal alteration, X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis and K-Ar dating were performed on clay samples from the Kojaku Granite of central Japan, including fault gouge along an active fault. The area studied is suitable for understanding thermal constraints on clay mineralization because the wall rock is homogeneous and its thermal history well defined. The results from XRD indicated that the clay minerals in the gouge samples are dioctahedral smectite, kaolinite, and 1Md illite, whereas clay fillings in fractures and joints in the intact granite (clay vein) include 2M1 illite in addition to dioctahedral smectite and 1Md illite. The evolution of clay mineralization is reconstructed as follows: (1) high-temperature hydrothermal alteration of feldspar and biotite produced 2M1 illite in clay veins; and (2) alteration accompanied by shearing at a lower temperature resulted in the formation of 1Md illite in the gouges. This scenario is consistent with the cooling history of the granite constrained by fission-track, U-Pb, and K-Ar dating methods. K-Ar dating of the clay samples separated into multiple particle-size fractions indicated that the low-temperature alteration leading to the production of 1Md illite was dated to ~40 Ma. Based on the cooling history of the granite, the 1Md illite formed at temperatures of 60–120°C. This temperature range was at the lower limit of the range reported in previous studies for faults. The spatial and geometrical relation of the faults studied and their K-Ar ages infer evolution which can be described as extensive development of small-scale faults at ~40 Ma followed by coalescence of the small-scale faults to form a larger, recently reactivated, active fault. The K-Ar ages have not been reset by the recent near-surface fault activity.

Aflatoxins cause liver damage and suppress immunity. Through adsorption, smectites can be used to reduce the bioavailability of aflatoxins. To further reduce the toxicity of aflatoxins and to eliminate the treatments of aflatoxin-loaded smectites, the ability to degrade the aflatoxin adsorbed to non-toxic or less toxic compounds is desirable. The objective of the present study was to investigate the effects of temperature and the exchange cation on the transformation of adsorbed aflatoxin B1 on smectite. An AfB1-Ca-smectite (sm) complex was synthesized. To enhance the Lewis acidity of the complexes, the exchanged calcium in the complex was replaced with Mn and Cu to obtain AfB1-Mn-sm and AfB1-Cu-sm complexes, respectively. The aflatoxin-sm complexes and pure aflatoxin B1 were dried at 60°C in aluminum cups, and heated from 100 to 200°C in 25°C steps. Aflatoxin B1 and its transformation products were extracted with methanol after the heat treatment. The extracts were analyzed using UV spectroscopy, high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)-fluorescence/UV, ultra-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC)-photodiode array (PDA), and electrospray ionization-tandem quadrupole-mass spectrometry (ESI-TQDMS). The solid residues were analyzed using Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). The UV and FTIR spectra of the AfB1-sm clay residue extracts obtained after heating had decreased AfB1 peak intensities and shifted peak positions with increased heating temperature. Significant shifts in band positions and changes in the shape of the UV spectra were observed in the extracts from the AfB1-Ca-sm complex heated at 175°C, the AfB1-Cu-sm complex heated at 150°C, and the AfB1-Mn-sm complex heated at 125°C. The HPLC and UPLCMS analyses of AfB1-sm complex extracts indicated a gradual decrease in AfB1 concentration with increased heating temperature and the formation of aflatoxins B2, B2a, M1, M2, and other unidentified compounds. No new compound was observed in the extracts of pure aflatoxin B1 after a comparable heating experiment. These results suggest that smectite can effectively convert aflatoxin to other less toxic forms at elevated temperatures. Smectite ion exchange with Cu or Mn transition-metal cations and heat treatment induced more efficient conversion of the adsorbed aflatoxin B1 molecules to other compounds.

Accidental discharges of the hazardous nuclear fission products 137Cs+ and 90Sr2+ into the environment, such as during the Fukushima Dai-ichi nuclear accident, have occurred repeatedly throughout the ‘nuclear age.’ Numerous studies of the fate and transport of 137Cs+ and 90Sr2+ in soils and sediments have demonstrated their strong and selective binding to phyllosilicate clay minerals, primarily by means of cation exchange into interlayer sites. The locally concentrated amounts of these radioactive beta-emitters that can be found in these host minerals raise important questions regarding the long-term interplay and durability of radioisotope—clay associations, which is not well known. The present study goes beyond the usual short-term focus to address the permanence of radioisotope retention in clay minerals, by developing a general theoretical understanding of their resistance to the creation of defects. The present study reports ab initio molecular dynamics (AIMD) calculations of the threshold displacement energy (TDE) of each symmetry-unique atomic species comprising the unit cell of model vermiculite. The TDE values determined are material specific, radiation independent, and can be used to estimate the probability of Frenkel-pair creation by direct electron—ion collision, as could be induced by the passage of a high-energy electron emitted during the beta-decay of 137Cs, 90Sr, and daughter 90Y. For 137Cs and 90Sr, the calculated probability is ~36%, while for 90Y the probability is much greater at ~89%. The long-term retention picture that emerges is that decay will progressively alter the clay interlayer structure and charge, probably leading to delamination of the clay, and re-release of residual parent isotopes. Further work examining the effect of Frenkel defect accumulation on the binding energy of parent and daughter radionuclides in the interlayer is thus justified and potentially important for accurate long-term forecasting of radionuclide transport in the environment.

Purification processes performed on natural clays to select specific clay minerals are complex and expensive and can lead to over-exploitation of some deposits. The present study aimed to examine physicochemical (mineralogy, morphology, size, surface charge, chemical composition, cation exchange capacity [CEC], and pH) and hydration (swelling, wettability, water sorption, and rheological behavior) properties of three native clays from Italian deposits for potential pharmaceutical and cosmetic uses due to the presence of phyllosilicate minerals. Particular emphasis was placed on energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) microanalysis coupled with the ‘cesium method’ to assay clay elemental composition and CEC. One bentonite of volcanic origin (BNT) and two kaolins, one of hydrothermal origin (K-H) and another of lacustrine-fluvial origin (K-L), were evaluated in comparison with a commercial, purified bentonite. The CEC assay revealed the complete substitution of exchangeable cations (Na+ and Ca2+) by Cs+ in BNT samples and CEC values consistent with those of typical smectites (100.64 ± 7.33 meq/100 g). For kaolins, partial substitution of Na+ cations occurred only in the K-L samples because of the interstratified mineral component which has small CEC values (11.13 ± 5.46 meq/100 g for the K-H sample and 14.75 ± 6.58 meq/100 g for the K-L sample). The degree of isomorphous substitution of Al3+ by Mg2+ affected the hydration properties of BNT in terms of swelling, water sorption, and rheology, whereas both of the poorly expandable kaolins exhibited significant water-adsorption properties. The EDX microanalysis has proved to be of considerable interest in terms of providing more information about clay properties in comparison with other commonly used methods and to identify the role played by both chemical and mineralogical composition of natural clays for their appropriate use in pharmaceutical and cosmetic fields.

Investigation of the organization of interlayer water and cations in smectite is a permanent topic in clay science for environmental science, civil engineering, materials science, and industrial applications. Experimental X-ray (or neutron) diffraction methods and molecular simulations are key techniques to probe the organization of the smectite structure at a similar molecular length scale. The combination of both of these experimental and numerical methods represents a complementary approach to reveal the structural heterogeneity of real samples, design and model a wide range of smectite structures, and validate the simulation results through comparison with experimental data.

This paper first revisits establishment of the original interlayer model as developed in the 1930s for the organization of water and ions in the smectite structure using X-ray diffraction (XRD) techniques. Then, based on a simplified approach, key theoretical tools are provided to calculate XRD pattern 00l reflections for a periodic smectite structure with a wide range of interlayer compositions and organizations using conventional spreadsheet software. In addition to educational purposes, this theoretical description is used to describe the principal parameters governing the positions and intensities of experimental XRD 00l reflections. This calculation toolbox is also used to determine better the layer-to-layer distances considered in molecular simulations and to validate these simulations through a detailed collation procedure using experimental data.

Recent examples of the application of such a procedure to collate experimental diffraction data and molecular simulations are presented for the specific case of deciphering the molecular organization of interlayer water and cations in the different smectite hydrates (mono-, bi-, and tri-hydrated layers). The extension of this approach to the interlayer refinement of organo-clays is also detailed, and perspectives regarding the characterization of other lamellar compounds are discussed.

The characterization of freshly cleaved mica surfaces for surface structure and chemical composition was briefly reviewed and focused on surface crystal chemistry using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and other surface-sensitive techniques. This paper considers micas, which are useful as a first approximation for the behavior of many clay surfaces. Emphasis was given to phyllosilicate XPS binding energies (“chemical shift”), which were described and used to obtain oxidation state, layer charge, and chemical bonding information from the chemical shifts of different peaks. The chemical shift of the Si2p binding-energy to lower values can result from a negative charge increase because of Si4+ replacement by Al3+ and/or Fe3+. The apparent interlayer coordination number reduction from twelve to eight at muscovite and tetraferri-phlogopite (001) surfaces was indicated by the XPS measured K2p binding-energy and is consistent with bond relaxation. Although chemical shifts are valuable to distinguish chemical bonding and oxidation state, chemical shifts usually cannot distinguish between different Al coordination environments where Al is in both tetrahedral and octahedral sites.

Most dioctahedral 2:1 swelling clays in natural systems contain ferric iron, Fe(III), which can be located in both the tetrahedral and the octahedral sheets. The distribution of Fe(III) between octahedral and tetrahedral sites in nontronite depends on the Fe and Si speciation during nontronite synthesis. The role played by the chemical properties of solutions in the Fe(III) distribution between structural sites was studied through nontronite syntheses. A chemical series of Fe(III)-nontronites with variable tetrahedral [4]Fe(III) content (x) ([Si4-xFe(III)x]Fe(III)2O10(OH)2Nax) was synthesized at 150°C across a range of initial aqueous pH values between 11 and 14. The permanent layer charge, due to Fe(III)-for-Si(IV) tetrahedral substitutions only, ranged from 0.43 to as high as 1.54 per half-unit cell. A d063̄3 value of 1.562 Å was measured by X-ray diffraction (XRD) for the highest charged nontronite (x = 1.54). This high d063̄3 value has not been reported in the literature for a dioctahedral smectite until now. The [4]Fe(III) content (x) of the synthetic nontronites, estimated using Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) through the wavenumber of the main stretching vSi-O band, was correlated with synthesis pH and its influence on calculated aqueous Si speciation. The increase in synthesis pH induced the increase in anionic aqueous Si species ratios (i.e. H3Si4(aq)− and H2Si4(aq)−), and favored the incorporation of Fe(III) in tetrahedral sites of synthesized nontronites. During nontronite formation in natural systems, the level of tetrahedral Fe(III)-for-Si(IV) substitutions may, therefore, be partly linked to the aqueous Si speciation and thus strongly dependent on the pH of the crystallization fluids.

Development of an effective sorbent for diesel fuel spill remediation remains an important challenge in the field of synthesis due to the potential capacity of sorbents to efficiently purify contaminated sites. Fly ash, a coal combustion by-product, was used as a raw material to synthesize two inexpensive zeolites (SZ-1 and SZ-2) for oil spill remediation using an alkali fusion approach prior to hydrothermal treatment. The sorbents were characterized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and N2 adsorption/desorption. Diesel fuel sorption was used to examine the potential capacity of the synthetic zeolites to sorb oil and other petroleum products. Diesel fuel viscosity and density were determined at room temperature using a viscometer and a pycnometer, respectively. The synthetic zeolites exhibited a higher diesel fuel sorption capacity than fly ash. The SZ-1 zeolite sorbed approximately 1.43 g·g−1 and SZ-2 sorbed approximately 1.9 g·g−1. The sorption was mainly a physical process and mesopore filling seemed to play the dominant role. Sorbent textures were, therefore, vital for the sorption of petroleum products.

Polycarboxylate superplasticizer (PCE) is a widely used water-reducing agent that can reduce significantly the water demand of concrete, which reduces the porosity and enhances the strength and durability of the concrete. (The PCE consists of a single backbone with many long PEO side chains.) Generally, aggregate occupies >70 wt.% of concrete; clay minerals are ubiquitous in nature and are difficult to avoid in mined aggregates. Clay minerals in aggregate often render the PCE ineffective and give rise to rapid loss of the fluidity of the concrete; this phenomenon is referred to as ‘poor clay tolerance of PCE.’ Though the poor clay tolerance of PCE is known widely, the relationship between the clay tolerance and the molecular structure of the PCE, in particular the effect of the side-chain structures, on clay tolerance is not understood completely. The objective of the present study was to determine the effect of different grafting densities of polyethylene oxide (PEO) side chains on the clay tolerance of PCE. The raw materials included mainly PCE, which was synthesized using acrylic acid and isopentenol polyoxyethylene ether, and a natural montmorillonite (Mnt), one of the most common clay minerals. The loss of fluidity of the cement paste was tested to assess the clay tolerance; total organic carbon was used to measure the amount of PCE adsorbed; X-ray diffraction, transmission electron microscopy, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, and thermogravimetric analysis were used to investigate the microstructure of the intercalated Mnt. The results showed that preventing the superficially adsorbed PCE from being intercalated into Mnt was of great importance in terms of the improvement in clay tolerance of PCE, which increased with greater grafting density of PEO in the side chain of the PCE. The results also suggested the possibility that polymers which intercalate preferentially into the Mnt could improve significantly the clay tolerance of the PCE system.

Focus here is placed on the pharmaceutical and biomedical applications of novel clay-drug hybrid materials categorized by methods of administration. Clay minerals have been used for many years as pharmaceutical and medicinal ingredients for therapeutic purposes. A number of studies have attempted to explore clay-drug hybrid materials for biomedical applications with desired functions, such as sustained release, increased solubility, enhanced adsorption, mucoadhesion, biocompatibility, targeting, etc. The present review attempts not only to summarize the state-of-the-art of clay-drug hybrid materials and their advantages, depending on the methods of administration, but also to deal with challenges and future perspectives of clay mineral-based hybrids for biomedical applications.