During food processing, proteins are subjected to different modifications, of which most are the result of proteolytic enzyme activity. Due to these mild and easily controlled reaction conditions, this method of modification has been commonly applied in producing high quality food products. Processing affects the conformation of the molecule and its biological activity. Limited hydrolysis leads to improvement of both the functional and nutritional properties of proteins, as well as their organoleptic characteristics. Proteolytic enzymes release peptides that frequently show different specific biological activities. Bioactive peptides govern the function of other compounds in the bloodstream, digestive, immune and nervous systems. Food sources of bioactive peptides exhibiting anti-hypertensive, anti-tumour, antioxidant or antimicrobial activities include milk, eggs and fish. Biopeptides with specific biological activities can be used in pharmaceutical, cosmetic or food industries as natural substances which prevent adverse changes, as food additives or as functional food ingredients with defined benefits to the consumer. The following paper reviews the role of hens eggs as a source of bioactive peptides, and how these can be used in functional foods.

Maize is the preferred energy cereal used in poultry feed formulations because of its high energy, low fibre and the presence of pigments and essential fatty acids. Consequently because it is a primary source of energy, due to its higher level of inclusion in poultry diets (60-70%), it contributes approximately 30% of the protein requirement of poultry. However, maize, like other cereals, is deficient in certain essential amino acids, such as lysine and tryptophan. Therefore, to meet the requirements of these essential amino acids, farmers and feed producers usually supplement poultry rations with synthetic amino acids. Quality protein maize (QPM), with almost double the lysine and tryptophan levels, is no different from that of normal maize (NM) in terms of the quantity of energy and protein it contains. Consequently, inclusion of QPM in poultry formulations will enable the feed manufacturer to produce feeds requiring minimal or no additional supplementation of crystalline amino acids particularly lysine and tryptophan. This review examines the available research on the nutritional value of QPM in poultry for its commercial exploitation as a feed material.

Broiler stunning is conducted to produce a rapid onset of insensibility prior to slaughter. Though most broiler plants use electrical stunning applications, gas stunning, and low-atmosphere pressure stunning are also available for commercial applications. All three of these stunning methods are able to meet animal welfare requirements and produce meat with acceptable quality. However, each method differs in their mechanisms of stunning, rigor mortis patterns, and physical meat characteristics. In addition, gas stunning and low-atmosphere pressure stunning have received interest over the past decade as part of an effort to further improve animal welfare. Researchers have reported that gas and low-atmosphere pressure stunning both have potential advantages over electrical stunning with respect to broiler welfare and deboning time, which has been attributed to shackling post-stunning. This review paper will focus on these three stunning methods and their impact on animal welfare, physiology, rigor mortis patterns, carcass characteristics, and meat quality.

The Algerian poultry industry produces annually on average 340,000 tons of white meat and more than 4.8 billion eggs. The industry consists of 20,000 farmers employing about 500,000 people. Most feed and other inputs are imported and correspond to 80% of 2,500,000 tons of feed (which is typically based on corn and soybean meal), three million breeder birds, veterinary products and equipment. The current structure of the Algerian poultry industry is derived from government development policies initiated in the 1980's. Currently the high dependence on external markets for feed materials remains the main limiting factor in the development of the Algerian poultry, especially for corn and soybean meal which represent over 75% of the content of poultry feed. Difficulties encountered by producers, particularly in terms of supply, increased expenses, disengagement of the State and problems in commercialisation of their products, has caused many skilled farmers to leave the poultry industry, creating a net loss in experience within the sector. In addition, the industry is also going through a period of modernisation and adaptation of this sector to meet the new world standards, including imminent integration of Algeria to the World Trade Organization (WTO) and partnership with the European Union, which involves free movement of goods, resulting in more competition and requires more integration with different partners (professional organisations, inter-professional associations) and various state structures and competent authorities (industry, agriculture and trade) with the establishment of an institutional framework for the development, implementation and monitoring of development policies in the poultry meat and egg sector.

The use of antibiotics in poultry feed as a growth promoter has been restricted in many countries around the world. Consequently, there is a growing interest in finding viable alternatives for growth enhancement and disease prevention in the poultry sector. Probiotics are considered alternative feed additives to antibiotics and can be defined as microbial food supplements which beneficially affect the host by improving its intestinal microbial balance. In this review, the special characteristics of probiotics and their mechanisms of action have been described. Probiotics enhance the growth and production of poultry birds, protect the host against pathogens, enhance the immune system, improve bone strength and fight parasitism. In the following paragraphs the available literature on the uses of probiotics in poultry production is reviewed.

Like other chick quality parameters, hatchling length is an easy and repeatable quality evaluation parameter for newly hatched chicks. This important trait has a positive correlation with the size of the egg and the chick's weight. The hatchling length is the best indicator of pre-incubation and incubation conditions and for the rate of absorption of yolk after hatching in the body cavity of the chick. Chicks with large lengths have heavier heart weights, liver weights and bursa of Fabricius at hatch. The length at hatch can be measured from the crown to toe and it can be improved by maintaining embryo temperature until internal pipping, proper egg storage conditions, maximum turning of eggs, maintaining the minimum egg weight losses at the 18th day of embryonic development, maintaining ample O2 supply and removal of CO2 through gas exchange programs, improved shell quality and better health of the breeder flock.

The yolk does not play any role in the bird's future growth but it can create many disease problems in the bird's life. A bigger, day-old chick has a large residual yolk and a small yolk-free body mass. This characteristic does not play any role in the development and growth during the incubation and post incubation processes. In conclusion, hatchling length offers a fast, repeatable, and non-destructive method to evaluate chick quality.

The productivity and health status of household poultry are under continuous challenges from endemic, emerging and re-emerging diseases in many developing countries. A key success to efficient rural poultry disease control is to harness both current disease status and farmer's knowledge. Participatory disease surveillance is a re-emerging epidemiology concept that is practically based and gives local farmers a greater role in shaping identified health and production programs. The concept involves open communication and transfer of knowledge by applying a toolkit of methods guided by some key concepts and attitudes to establish current health and production status and to identify best policy intervention strategies. Surveys from a total of 90 villages with a focus group discussion involving at least 15 participants, were conducted. The profiling tools used in the study included relative incidence scoring, disease impact matrix scoring and visualization techniques while probing was used to check responses. Matrix scoring indicated Newcastle disease (ND) as the most important disease of poultry. ND, ectoparasitism and fowl pox were the most prevalent poultry diseases. Farmers in this region possess rich indigenous veterinary knowledge but lack access to modern veterinary facilities. The economic impacts of these poultry diseases are significantly high. Participatory disease surveillance has made tremendous contributions towards controlling livestock diseases and is now a global concept that needs to be fully adapted in Nigeria and other developing countries. This paper reviews the principal methodology of participatory epidemiology and highlights feedbacks from a field research in the Jos Plateau, Nigeria.

Heat stress compromises performance and productivity through reducing feed intake, while decreasing nutrient utilisation, growth rate, egg production, egg quality and feed efficiency, leading to economic losses in poultry. High temperatures can lead to oxidative stress associated with a reduced antioxidant status in the bird in vivo, as reflected by increased oxidative damage and lowered plasma concentrations of antioxidants. Several strategies are currently available to alleviate the negative effects of high environmental temperature on the performance of poultry. However, as it is expensive to cool buildings in which animals are housed, many efforts are focused on dietary manipulation. In terms of reducing the negative effects of environmental stress, antioxidants are used in poultry feed because of the reported benefits of these supplements, including their anti-stress effects. In this review, the mode of action of these supplements is investigated, and evidence is presented showing that phytochemicals can alter several cell signalling pathways. The agents include epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG; green tea), lycopene (tomato) and resveratrol (red grapes, peanuts and berries). The cell-signalling pathways inhibited by EGCG include transcription factors (nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB)) and nuclear factors (erythroid-derived 2-like 2 (Nrf2)) and activator protein-1 (AP-1) that regulate cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2). This review will also address some of the mechanisms proposed for the heat stress preventive activity of EGCG, lycopene and resveratrol focusing on the induction of antioxidant enzymes (phase II enzymes) through the activation of the antioxidant response element (ARE) transcription system.

The conventional method of feeding broilers, using high density diets has been found to be associated with increases in fatness and a number of metabolic disorders. The adverse effect of high density diets on the performance of broilers was found to be more pronounced under a tropical environment. Allowing broilers free access to feed using low density diets (quantitative nutrition) has been suggested as a strategy to improve the performance of the broilers within the prevailing environmental conditions in the tropics. A specific approach had been evaluated as suitable for reducing the available metabolisable energy (AME) intakes of the broiler and increasing feed intake. This involves diet dilution with high fibre feedstuffs to reduce the available metabolisable energy (AME) value of the diet.

Avian influenza is a highly pathogenic poultry disease found around the globe. It is caused by different strains of avian influenza virus. The H5N1 strain is not spread worldwide in humans, although, sporadic contaminations have been reported. It is known that the virus spreads from animals to humans however, there is concern regarding the evolution of the virus and that it is now possible for the virus to spread from human to human. There is currently no vaccine available that can act against all strains of the virus, although some vaccines have reached clinical trial stage. Regardless, there is a great need to develop a vaccine which will be effective against all strains of avian influenza. This review will focus on recent advances with special reference to the development of DNA vaccines against avian influenza. The specific importance, the hurdles to development and the possible future strategies for the development of DNA vaccines against multiple strains of avian influenza will be discussed.

Ladakh, the Trans Himalayan part of the Jammu Kashmir State of India, is located between the Greater Himalaya and the Karakoram Range, known as the ‘cold desert’, and is comprised of two districts, Leh (45110 km2) and Kargil (14,086 km2). This area has several peculiar climatic conditions characterised by prolonged sub-zero temperatures, unfertile sandy soils with very low water holding capacities, dryness (less than 30% humidity), low oxygen content, intense solar radiation, low atmospheric pressure, high wind velocity and rugged terrain. In winter the temperature falls to -35°C and the altitude varies from 10,000 to 12,000 feet from mean sea level (MSL). The atmospheric oxygen pressure is 30% lower than of MSL. This type of cold arid desert isn't akin to the natural environment of poultry, and hatchability is a big problem due to the climatic conditions in this region. For normal hatchability at sea level, the oxygen concentration, barometric pressure, humidity and temperature should be 21%, 740 mm Hg, 65% and 99.8°F, respectively. However in this cold desert area O2 concentration is 30% lower than at sea level, barometric pressure is only 510 mm Hg, humidity is less than 30% and temperature ranges from -30C to +30°C.

In the last two decades, India has reached a level of self-sufficiency in chicken production, and the poultry industry has become more sophisticated, but the situation in the cold arid part of Leh-Ladakh in India remains challenging. The main reasons for this are the non-existence of any commercial hatcheries, problems transporting day old chicks, poor availability of poultry feed ingredients and the fact that the majority of the population are Buddhist, and consequently largely vegetarian and generally avoid killing animals. The following paper reviews some of the issues of raising poultry in such inhospitable conditions, and how these can be resolved.

Food borne illness is one of the most widespread health problems in the world and an important cause of reduced economic productivity especially in developing and under developed countries. In addition, food safety of poultry products remains a serious problem in many countries in the world. Similar to many other countries, the development of food safety standards in Iran is handled by the government. The poultry industry in Iran has been and is under dynamic and progressive development. In spite of the advances in the poultry industry in Iran, the issues of food borne pathogens, and drug and chemical residues remain. Meat inspection at poultry processing plants has been successful, but obviously has certain limitations. More importantly, drug, pesticide, mycotoxin and other chemical residues must be monitored in poultry meat and eggs. This work has to be carried out in close collaboration with human and environmental health professionals, analysts, epidemiologists, food producers, processors and traders. Poultry veterinarians and the Iran Veterinary Organization (IVO) should play a decision-making role in the development of the poultry industry. Poultry veterinarians and IVO have a dual responsibility; epidemiological surveillance of poultry diseases and ensuring the safety of meat and eggs. Via their presence on farms and appropriate collaboration with farmers, poultry veterinarians play a key role in ensuring that birds are kept under hygienic conditions, especially conditions which have public health significance. Slaughterhouse inspection of live birds (ante-mortem) and the carcass (post-mortem) plays a key role in both the surveillance network for poultry diseases and zoonoses and ensuring the safety of poultry meat.

Pakistan is an agro-livestock based economy with a poultry share of 55% of the total agricultural GDP (21%). The environment in Pakistan remains hot and humid during July to August, which renders the survival of poultry critical during these months, as birds are more susceptible to changing environments than other domestic animals. Heat stress is a combination of high environmental temperature and humidity, hindering proper thermoregulatory processes. It diminishes immunity, feed intake, weight gain, egg production, number of chicks per hen, hatchability of fertile eggs, egg and carcass quality, mineral balance, and increases panting and mortality and affects semen quality and fertility in male birds. Ascorbic acid (vitamin C), a white crystalline compound (also known as L-ascorbic acid) is primarily synthesised in the chicken by the kidneys, however, during heat stress, endogenous ascorbic acid becomes insufficient to meet the bird's requirements. Vitamin C ameliorates heat stress induced problems such as poor immunity, feed intake, weight gain, oxidative stress, rectal and body temperature, fertility and semen quality, carcass weight and mortality in birds.

The present article summarises the effect of dietary supplements viz., dietary organic acid (OA) supplements, mannan-oligosaccharide (MOS) and β-glucan supplementation on poultry. The article focuses on the effects on immunity, and the follow on benefits to gut development and performance in growing poultry.

The process of growth and development of any business entity is tightly linked to investments. This paper elaborates on the application of multiple criteria methods from the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) with the aim to create assumptions for the development of production, particularly focused on opportunities for investments in table egg production. There were two alternatives analysed: investment in enriched cages and investment in alternative production systems. Each of these options had advantages and disadvantages, that were graded by criteria. Investment in alternative systems was assessed as a better alternative, as eggs produced in these systems were estimated to achieve higher income. Financial investments in such systems are higher, but eggs achieve a higher price in the market than those from enriched cages. Sensitivity analysis presented the effects that changes in the egg price and in costs structure have on the net present value of investment. Sensitivity analysis showed that changes in egg price significantly affect the success of business, while input costs have less impact on the business result.

This study analysed the profitability of poultry feed marketing in Imo State with a view that potential investors would be more likely to invest in the business if they are convinced that the enterprise is viable economically. Imo State was selected for the study because of its high concentration of poultry feed marketers. A sample of 59 poultry feed marketers, spread across the state, were randomly selected from a sampling frame of 99 marketers. Data were collected with the use of a well structured and validated questionnaire and analysed using descriptive statistics, multiple regression techniques and profitability indices. The results indicated that the cost of initial purchase of the feeds constituted the greatest share of the total cost, at 95.18%. The rate of return to investment gave an index of 6%, implying that for every Naira currency unit invested the return to investment is six Naira thirteen kobo (N6.13K). Regression results showed that the cost of labour, storage and selling price was negatively and significantly associated with net income, while cost of initial purchase and wages showed a positive relationship with net income. No significant relationship was found to exist between net income, cost of transportation and rental. The major constraints to poultry feed marketing were found to be high cost of transportation, shortage of trading capital, and price fluctuations. It was therefore recommended that the government should provide good road networks to reduce transportation cost. The marketers should form cooperative associations (where they do not currently exist) for their common benefit, and as a source of facilities from the banks to solve the problem of capital shortage. To further reduce the cost of initial purchase, the government and other agencies should consider subsidising poultry feed.

Family poultry (FP) production in Bangladesh comprises the production of free range scavenging chickens and ducks of indigenous origin with or without feed supplementation, various crossbreeds, particularly F1 of Rhode Island Red male X Fayoumi female and small-scale commercial broilers, cockerels from layer strains and commercial layers reared in confinement and provided commercial feeds. This paper reviews the current status of such a FP production, examines the way it is practiced and identifies its constraints and future prospects in Bangladesh. Finally, the paper concludes whether such a production system is worthwhile or an aimless journey for a developing country like Bangladesh. Family poultry works as a ‘standby generator’ in the poultry sector, particularly at times of disaster, such as a fall in the demand for beef and mutton. Rearing a fewer number (e.g. 5-10) of FP in a free range system, as in the case of indigenous birds under low input and low output systems, is economical since such birds derive most of their feed from scavenging. Interventions in terms of nutritional and/or management to augment productivity must be justified economically. Since the crossbreeds and commercial hybrids are more productive, rearing such birds as FP (100 or less) must be justified by the benefit cost ratio. It may be concluded that FP production in Bangladesh with indigenous or commercial breeds or hybrids in fewer numbers, could be made meaningful if monetary benefit supersedes the cost of production. Otherwise, it would be an aimless practise. More research is needed in Bangladesh to explore the profitability of FP of different flock sizes under different systems of management. FP with commercial hybrids is more challenging because of their small flock size which needs continuous technical support and a well planned biosecured environment.

This paper focuses on identification, risk status, exterior and production characteristics of two autochthonous hen breeds, the Banat Naked Neck and the Sombor Crested in the Republic of Serbia. These are two autochthonous breeds which have preserved the original characteristics of domestic poultry. Today they are reared in rural households or by breeders in small flocks. They mainly reproduce naturally, under brooding hens, with moderate attention or care from the farmer. These breeds are highly endangered. It is estimated that the total number of birds of the Banat Naked Neck breed ranges from 5,000 to 6,000 while the number of birds of the Sombor Crested breed is below 1,000. The limited number of birds per breed and the absence of experts and professional control in breeding have caused high variability of breed characteristics. These breeds are of combined type, used for production of meat and eggs; they have lower production characteristics, but are highly resistant and low-maintenance in regard to rearing and nutrition. To ensure the protection of these breeds from extinction, significant efforts have been made in the last decade. The preservation program has been developed for each breed in order to maintain the optimal number of animals to ensure a sufficient gene pool (by the ‘in situ’ conservation method), which could be used for the improvement of some traits in the selection of modern strains of poultry.

The hen's egg, in the form of table eggs and egg products, forms a staple part of the world's total protein consumption. In the last century, there has been considerable research effort focusing on ways of improving egg production and enhancing the quality of eggs. More recently, and with the development and application of new molecular technologies, our understanding and knowledge of how an egg is formed, what it actually consists of, in terms of its major versus minor components, and what the functional roles of each of these components might be, have been greatly enhanced. For example, new previously unknown molecules with specific activity or functional properties have been discovered in the egg albumen and yolk, some of which have potential uses in pharmaceutical and other food related applications. This review paper, which is the collaborative effort of members of Working Group 4 - Quality of Eggs and Egg Products - of the European Federation of WPSA, describes the scientific research behind a number of these major advances and provides some insight to the focus of current research in this area.

Mycoplasma are a successful group of pathogens because of their ability to enter and colonise a host, whilst, at the same time, evading the bird's immune response. Mycoplasma iowae (MI) is no exception and, while mostly being a pathogen of turkeys, it can be found in other domestic poultry. It has the added ability of being able to induce a transient immune suppression situation, and this may result in a low to undetectable humoral immune response, giving it the capacity to conceal itself from the immune system. This makes MI both difficult to diagnose and control. The organism has a range of strain dependent pathogenicities and when it is pathogenic, it is primarily found in the embryo and growing poult. This leads to a range of clinical presentations such as decreased hatchability (due to higher than expected embryonic mortality) and stunting and leg abnormalities in the growing poult. As a consequence of the significant variation in pathogenicity of field strain isolates, the isolation of a non-pathogenic MI may conceal the true origin of possible embryo and poult health issues. Control of pathogenic MI at the commercial level is primarily through sourcing pathogenic MI free stock and the maintenance of appropriate biosecurity levels.