^{page 131 note 1} Sir Webster, Charles K., Britain and the Independence of Latin America, 1812–1830. Select Documents from the Foreign Office Archives (2 vols., London, 1938), i, 11.Google Scholar

^{page 131 note 2} Britain, the future Baron Stuart de Rothesay told the Foreign Office in 1809, was only ‘known in South America by the exercise of our power to the disadvantage of the inhabitants, by a long succession of injurious and predatory acts, by unsuccessful expeditions against the vulnerable parts of their coast’. Communication from Mr C. Stuart on the Spanish Colonies in South America, 15 Sept. 1809, P[ublic] R[ecord] O[ffice], F[oreign] O[ffice Records] 72/90.

^{page 131 note 3} W. W. Pole to Sir William Sidney Smith, 25 Jan. 1808, G. S. Graham and Humphreys, R. A., The Navy and South America, 1807–1823. Correspondence of the Commanders-in-Chief on the South American Station (London, Navy Records Society, 1962), Doc. 2.Google Scholar

^{page 132 note 1} Manley Dixon to J. W. Croker, 30 April, 11, 21 June, 1813, ibid., Docs. 62, 68, 69.

^{page 132 note 2} Croker to Dixon, 27 Dec. 1814, Dixon to Croker, 28 April 1815, ibid., Docs. 100, 105.

^{page 132 note 3} Ibid., p. 158.

^{page 132 note 4} Melville to Bathurst, 11 Aug. 1817, National Library of Scotland, Melville MSS. 3835. I am indebted for this reference to Dr C. J. Bartlett.

^{page 132 note 5} Hardy to Croker, 27 Oct. 1819, Graham and Humphreys, op. cit., Doc. 168; Bartlett, C. J., Great Britain and Sea Power, 1815–1853 (Oxford, 1963), pp. 64–65.Google Scholar The squadron had been considerably reduced by the end of September 1822, but was again re-inforced in 1823, and at the end of 1824 consisted of two ships of the line, six frigates and three sloops.

^{page 132 note 6} Hall, Basil, Extracts from a Journal, written on the Coasts of Chili, Peru, and Mexico, in the years 1820, 1821, 1822 (2 vols., 3rd ed., Edinburgh, 1824), i, 42.Google Scholar The squadron only operated ‘south of the line’ in the Atlantic.

^{page 133 note 1} Ibid., i, 43

^{page 133 note 2} De Courcy to Croker, 29 Sept. 1810, Graham and Humphreys, op. cit., Doc. 34.

^{page 133 note 3} But slavers were permitted to enter specified ports in the West Indies and on the Main after 1789, and this privilege was extended to Cartagena and the Rio de la Plata in 1791 and to certain Pacific ports later. See King, J. F., ‘Evolution of the Free Slave Trade Principle in Spanish Colonial Administration’, Hispanic American Historical Review, xxii (1942), pp. 50 ff.Google Scholar

^{page 133 note 4} Cf. Christelow, Allan, ‘Great Britain and the Trades from Cadiz and Lisbon to Spanish America and Brazil, 1759—1783’Google Scholar, ibid., xxvii (1947), 2–29 and Goebel, D. B., ‘British Trade to the Spanish Colonies, 1796–1823’, American Historical Review, xliii (1938), 288–320CrossRefGoogle Scholar, and, for the free port system, extended after 1787 from Jamaica and Dominica to other strategic points in the West Indies, Armytage, Frances, The Free Port System in the British West Indies. A study in commercial policy, 1366–1822 (London, 1953)Google Scholar

^{page 134 note 1} Memorial on the Advantages to be obtained by Great Britain from a Free Intercourse with Spanish America, 14 Feb. 1806 [?], F.O. 72/90. See also his Plan for Occupying Spanish America…, 26 Oct. 1804, P.R.O., Chatham Papers, 30/8/345. Jacob was M.P. for Rye 1808–12, and was made an R.F.S. in 1807.

^{page 134 note 2} See, on this paragraph, Goebel, op. cit., and my Raleigh Lecture, British Merchants and South American Independence, reprinted from the Proceedings of the British Academy, vol. li, London, 1966.

^{page 134 note 3} Thus, Alexander Mackinnon, who arrived at Montevideo on 1 June 1809 as supercargo and part owner of the Richard of London, and became President of the Committee of British Merchants in Buenos Aires early in 1810, corresponded regularly with the Foreign Office till June 1811. Robert Staples (see below, note 4) and the Parish Robertson brothers are further examples.

^{page 135 note 1} Spencer Perceval to Canning, 6 Mar. 1809; William Huskisson to George Hammond, 19 July 1809, F.O. 72/90. Cf. Armytage, op. cit., pp. 110–11, 118–19.

^{page 135 note 2} G. Harrison to Hon. A. C. Johnstone, 17 Mar. 1809, Secret, F.O. 72/90.

^{page 135 note 3} The amount of silver obtained by direct purchase was never large. Cody, W. F., ‘British Interest in the Independence of Mexico, 1808–1827’, an unpublished doctoral thesis of the University of London (1954), p. 70Google Scholar, gives a figure of under $11 million for the years 1810 to 1820.

^{page 135 note 4} The appointment of Staples was dated 16 March 1811. Having been refused recognition, he returned to England in June 1812 and was given £1,200 to compensate him for losses and expenses. He again went to Buenos Aires in 1813 to prosecute certain mercantile speculations of his own and also to procure bullion for the Treasury, and this time stayed there. On his own responsibility he acceded in 1816 to the request of the British merchants in the city to represent them in an official manner and even assumed the title of consul, which he continued to employ until an official rebuke reached him in 1819. See Memorandum respecting Mr Staples and the Consulship of Buenos Aires, F.O. 6/1; Staples to Planta, 6 Dec. 1825, F.O. 6/10; and, for further details of his career, my British Consular Reports on the Trade and Politics of Latin America, 1824–1826 (Royal Historical Society, Camden Third Series, lxiii, London, 1940), p. 331, note 2, hereinafter cited as B.C.R.

^{page 136 note 1} Cf. Neumann, W. F., ‘United States Aid to the Chilean Wars of Independence’, Hispanic American Historical Review, xxvii (1947), 204–19CrossRefGoogle Scholar, and Chandler, C. L., Inter-American Acquaintances (Sewanee, Tennessee, 1915).Google Scholar

^{page 136 note 2} Graham, G. S., Empire of the North Atlantic. The maritime struggle for North America (Toronto, 1950), p. 242.Google Scholar

^{page 136 note 3} Whitaker, A. P., The United States and the Independence of Latin America, 1800–1830 (Baltimore, 1941), pp. 279, 298–99.Google Scholar

^{page 136 note 4} 558,000 tons in 1802,981,000 tons at the end of 1812. Perkins, Bradford, Prologue to War: England and the United States, 1805–1812 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1961), p. 29.Google Scholar

^{page 136 note 5} Cf. Nichols, R. F., ‘Trade Relations and the Establishment of the United States Consulates in Spanish America, 1779–1809’, Hispanic American Historical Review, xiii (1933), 289–313CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Goebel, op. cit., pp. 295–99.

^{page 137 note 1} See above, p. 134, n. 1.

^{page 137 note 2} Nichols, R. F., Advance Agents of American Destiny (Philadelphia, 1956), pp. 223–25CrossRefGoogle Scholar, gives statistics of the Spanish West Indian trade with the United States. Cf. also Chandler, C. L., ‘United States Merchant Ships in the Rio de la Plata (1801–8) as shown by Early Newspapers’, Hispanic American Historical Review, ii (1919), 26–54CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Salas, Eugenio Pereira, Buques norteamericanos en Chile a fines de la era colonial (1788–1810) (Prensas de la Universidad de Chile, 1936)Google Scholar; Whitaker, op. cit., pp. 11–16; and Bernstein, Harry, Origins of Inter-American Interest, 1700–1812 (Philadelphia, 1945), pp. 33–42Google Scholar

^{page 137 note 3} At Cuba, for example, as early as 1797 and at La Guaira in 1800.

^{page 137 note 4} His career is described in Nichols, Advance Agents, pp. 50–156.

^{page 137 note 5} Manning, W. R., ed., Diplomatic Correspondence of the United States concerning the Independence of the Latin-American Nations (3 vols., New York, 1925), ii, 1153.Google Scholar

^{page 138 note 1} Manning, op. cit., ii, 1151, 1156; Luis López Mendez to Castlereagh, 12 Oct. 1812, F.O. 72/157, that duties had been reduced in favour of Great Britain as a result of an agreement between the Supreme Junta and the Governor of Curaçao.

^{page 138 note 2} Gregor MacGregor to Spencer Perceval, Caracas, 18 Jan. 1812, F.O. 72/171.

^{page 138 note 3} Peterson, H. F., Argentina and the United States, 1810–1960 (New York, 1964), p. 17Google Scholar. There is more than one biography of Poinsett. See Rippy, J. F., Joel R. Poinsett, Versatile American (Durham, N.C., 1935).Google Scholar

^{page 138 note 4} Alexander Mackinnon to Strangford, 31 Mar. 1812, F.O. 72/156. Cf. Staples to Castlereagh, 30 July 1812, F.O. 72/157.

^{page 138 note 5} Heywood to Melville, 4 Dec. 1812, F.O. 72/152, and, for a somewhat different version, Tagart, Edward, A Memoir of the late Captain Peter Heywood, R.N.… (London, 1832), pp. 245–61Google Scholar. See also the comments of Captain Bowles in Graham and Humphreys, op. cit., pp. 113, 117.

^{page 138 note 6} See, however, for two examples, Keen, Benjamin, David Curtis DeForest and the Revolution of Buenos Aires (New Haven, 1947)Google Scholar, and Salas, Eugenio Pereira, Henry Hill, Comerciante, Vice-Consuly Misionero (Santiago de Chile, 1940).Google Scholar

^{page 139 note 1} Cf. Stewart, Watt, ‘The South American Commission 1817–1818’, Hispanic American Historical Review, ix (1929), 31–59CrossRefGoogle Scholar, and Rasmussen, W. D., ‘Diplomats and Plant Collectors: the South American Commission, 1817–1818’, Agricultural History, xxix (1955), 22–31.Google Scholar

^{page 139 note 2} 20 April 1825. Alfred, Tischendorf and Taylor Parks, E., eds., The Diary and Journal of Richard Clough Anderson, Jr., 1814–1826 (Durham, N.C., 1964), p. 202.Google Scholar

^{page 139 note 3} Michael Scott, Tom Cringle's Log (William Blackwood, Edinburgh and London, n.d.), p. 170. Tom Cringle's Log was first published in Blackwood's Magazine in 1829–33. Scott had lived for many years in Jamaica and the principal scenes of the book are laid there and in the Caribbean generally in 1815 and 1816.

^{page 140 note 1} Alongside the speeches of Brougham, Mackintosh and Lansdowne in England and of Clay in the United States the remarks of Sir Oswald Mosley on 9 Feb. 1818 deserve to be remembered: ‘He hoped in God that such a separation [of the Spanish colonies from Spain] would take place. It was the interest of mankind that it should: it was particularly the interest of this fine and commercial country, that other countries should be free, and in a condition to reciprocate commercial advantages upon liberal and enlightened principles.’ Parliamentary Debates, xxxvii, 249.

^{page 140 note 2} For Castlereagh's warning against the use of force see the Foreign Office ‘Confidential Memorandum’ of Aug. 1817, Webster, op. cit., ii, 352–58, and his The Foreign Policy of Casttereagh, 1815–1822 (London, 1934), pp. 413–21.

^{page 141 note 1} Canning to Hookham Frere, 8 Jan. 1825, Festing, G., John Hookham Frere and his Friends (London, 1899), p. 267.Google Scholar

^{page 141 note 2} Calvin, Colton, ed., The Works of Henry Clay… (10 vols., New York and London, 1901), vi, 145Google Scholar; Griffin, C. C., The United States and the Disruption of the Spanish Empire, 1810–1822 (New York, 1937), p. 136.Google Scholar

^{page 141 note 3} See, more particularly, Whitaker, A. P., The Western Hemisphere Idea: its rise and decline (Ithaca, N.Y., 1954), pp. 28–31, 35–39.Google Scholar

^{page 141 note 4} Rippy, J. F., Rivalry of the United States and Great Britain over Latin America {1808–1830) (Baltimore, 1929), pp. 109–11, 228–29, 234–35, 358.Google Scholar

^{page 141 note 5} 8 Jan. 1820.

^{page 142 note 1} 3 June 1819. Parliamentary Debates, xl, 871–72.

^{page 142 note 2} C. S. Todd to J. Q. Adams, Bogota, 29 Mar., 17 April 1823, Manning, op. cit., ii, 1248, 1250; John M. Forbes to Clay, 21 June, 3 Aug. 1826, ibid., i, 654, 656.Cf. the still more absurd fears of J. G. A. Williamson in Venezuela in 1829, ibid., ii, 1343–44.

^{page 142 note 3} Perkins, Prologue to War, p. 20.

^{page 142 note 4} 9 April 1816. Parliamentary Debates, xxxiii, 1099, 1119.

^{page 142 note 5} Cf. Tierney, 18 May, Wilson, 3 June, Davies, 10 June 1819, Parliamentary Debates, xl, 482–83, 859, 1087; Lushington, 11 July 1820, ibid., n.s., ii, 381; Memorial of Merchants, Ship-Owners, Manufacturers and Traders of London, 23 April 1822, Times, 30 April 1822; ibid., 3 July 1822.

^{page 142 note 6} Cf. Rush to Adams, 10 June 1822, Manning, op. cit., iii, 1467.

^{page 143 note 1} Bemis, S. F., John Quincy Adams and the Foundations of American Foreign Policy (New York, 1949), pp. 401–2.Google Scholar

^{page 143 note 2} See his memorandum of 1 May 1807. Charles Vane, marquess of Londonderry, Memoirs and Correspondence of Viscount Castlereagh (12 vols., London, 1848–53), vii, 314 ff. Cf. Ferns, H. S., Britain and Argentina in the Nineteenth Century (Oxford, 1960), pp. 47–48.Google Scholar

^{page 143 note 3} On the Cuban question see Webster, Britain and the Independence of Latin America, i, 34–40; Rippy, op. cit., pp. 78–90; Temperley, H. W. V., The Foreign Policy of Canning, 1822–1827 (London, 1925), pp. 168–77.Google Scholar

^{page 143 note 4} Webster, op. cit., i, 66–71.

^{page 143 note 5} See my Diplomatic History of British Honduras, 1638–1901 (London, 1961), pp. 10–19.

^{page 143 note 6} Griffin, op. cit., p. 45.

^{page 144 note 1} T. S. Hood to Planta, Montevideo, 20 Dec. 1824, F.O. 51/1; Woodbine Parish to Canning, Buenos Aires, 5 Dec. 1824, F.O. 6/5; B.C.R., pp. 36–37, 83, 137; and see above, p. 136, n. 5.

^{page 144 note 2} Parish to Canning, 10 Oct. 1825, F.O. 6/9; Parish to Planta, 5 April 1826, F.O. 6/11; B.C.R., pp. 37, 137–39,2 37–3 Cf. T. Tupper to J. P. Hamilton, La Guaira, 16 Jan. 1824, P.R.O., Bfoard of] T[rade Records], 6/37; B.C.R., p. 276, n. 1. For the auction system in the United States see Buck, N. S., The Development of the Organisation of Anglo-American Trade, 1800–1850 (New Haven, 1925), pp. 137–41, 147–50, 170.Google Scholar

^{page 144 note 4} Cf. C. Mackenzie to Canning, Vera Cruz, 7 Oct. 1824, F.O. 50/7; B.C.R., pp. 129, 314. For silver shipments from Peru see ibid., p. 195.

^{page 145 note 1} Cf Parish to Canning, 10 Oct. 1825, F.O. 6/9; B.C.R., pp. 38, n. 4, 139–42, 190–91.

^{page 145 note 2} Whitaker, The United States and the Independence of Latin America, pp. 127, 130; H. T. Kilbee to Planta, Havana, 7 June 1823, F.O. 72/275; 6 Jan. 1824, F.O. 72/304. British shipping arriving at Havana in 1823 was less than 17,000 tons, American more than 100,000, of which 24,000 were engaged in the carrying trade with the ports of other nations. See also B.C.R., p. 47, n. 2.

^{page 145 note 3} B.C.R., p. 314.

^{page 145 note 4} T. Tupper to Canning, La Guaira, 10 Aug. 1824, B.T. 6/39; R. Suther-land to Henderson, Maracaibo, 7 Aug. 1824, 1 Jan. 1825, F.O. 135/3; Cf. B.C.R., pp. 261–62, 277, 282. American shipping seems to have been slightly in excess of British at Cartagena also. E. Watts to Canning, Cartagena, 7 Jan. 1825, B.T. 6/40.

^{page 145 note 5} Comparative Return of Trade at the Port of Buenos Ayres during the years 1822–27, 1 Dec. 1827, F.O. 354/8; T. S. Hood to Planta, Montevideo, 20 Aug. 1824, F.O. 51/1.

^{page 145 note 6} B.C.R., pp. 94, n. 2, 124–25. See also Véliz, Claudio, Historia de la Marina Mercante de Chile (Santiago, 1961), p. 41.Google Scholar

^{page 146 note 1} B.C.R., pp. 276, 281, 313, 314; H. G. Ward, Mexico in 1824 (2 vols., London, 1828), i, 435–37.

^{page 146 note 2} Cf. Parish to Canning, 5 Dec. 1824, F.O. 6/5; B.C.R., pp. 36–37.

^{page 146 note 3} Woodbine Parish, Buenos Ayres and the Provinces of the Rio de la Plata (2nd ed., London, 1852), p. 361, and see also B.C.R., pp. 35–36.

^{page 146 note 4} For exports to Brazil see Manchester, A. K., British Preëminence in Brazil, its rise and decline (Chapel Hill, 1933), p. 207Google Scholar, and B.C.R., p. 348

^{page 146 note 5} Manning, op. cit., ii, 943; Goebel, D. B., ‘British-American Rivalry in the Chilean Trade, 1817–1820’, Journal of Economic History, ii (1942), pp. 198–199Google Scholar

^{page 146 note 6} Evans, H. C., Chile and its Relations with the United States (Durham, N.C., 1927), p. 40.Google Scholar

^{page 146 note 7} G. Mollien, Voyage dans la République de Colombia, en 1823 (2 vols., Paris, 1824), i, 281; English edition (London, 1824), pp. 215–16.

^{page 146 note 8} Manning, op. cit., i, 568, iii, 1728, 1734.

^{page 146 note 9} Sundry British Merchants to Canning, 21 July 1823, F.O. 72/283.

^{page 147 note 1} B.C.R., p. 124. Cf. ibid., p. 36, n. 2.

^{page 147 note 2} Canning to Wellington, 29 Oct. 1822. Despatches, Correspondence, and Memoranda of Field Marshal Arthur Duke of Wellington, edited by his son (5 vols., London, 1867–73), i, 465.

^{page 147 note 3} The formal establishment of American diplomatic relations with Colombia took place in June 1822, with Mexico in December, and with ‘Buenos Ayres’ and Chile in 1823. Canning does refer to the action of the United States in his Memorandum for the Cabinet of November 1822, when, exasperated by the depredations committed on British shipping in the West Indies, he argued that the then state of affairs could not be allowed to continue and that the United States had ordered things better. E. J. Stapleton, ed., Some Official Correspondence of George Canning (2 vols., London, 1887), i, 51.

^{page 148 note 1} Memorandum of February 1823. Stapleton, op. cit., i, 87–88.

^{page 148 note 2} Bartlett, op. cit., pp. 66–68; Wellington, Despatches, ii, 139–40.

^{page 148 note 3} Canning to Sir Charles Stuart, 31 March 1823, Temperley, op. cit., pp. 84–8;.

^{page 149 note 1} Manning, op. cit., iii, 1475–95. There was an additional point—that Britain and the United States would not stand in the way of any amicable arrangement between the colonies and Spain. For differing interpretations of Canning's motives see Webster, Britain and the Independence of Latin America, i, 46–47; Kaufmann, W. W., British Policy and the Independence of Latin America, 1804–1828 (New Haven, 1951), pp. 150–55Google Scholar; and Perkins, Bradford, Castlereagh and Adams. England and the United States, 1812–1823 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1964), pp. 314–16, 318–23.Google Scholar

^{page 149 note 2} Manning, op. cit., i, 85–88; Whitaker, The United States and the Independence of Latin America, pp. 260–66.

^{page 149 note 3} Perkins, Castlereagh and Adams, p. 323.

^{page 149 note 4} Parliamentary Debates, n.s., x, 68.

^{page 149 note 5} 6 Jan. 1824.

^{page 150 note 1} Perkins, Dexter, The Monroe Doctrine, 1823–1826 (Cambridge, Mass., 1927), p. 82Google Scholar; Whitaker, The United States and the Independence of Latin America, pp. 449–53.

^{page 150 note 2} Dexter Perkins, op. cit., p. 92.

^{page 150 note 3} Cf. Bradford Perkins, Castlereagh and Adams, p. 321, for one piece of evidence that he did.

^{page 150 note 4} Dexter Perkins, op. cit., p. 74.

^{page 150 note 5} Canning to A'Court, 31 Dec. 1823, A. G. Stapleton, George Canning and his Times (London, 1859), pp. 394–95.

^{page 150 note 6} Planta to Parish, 30 Dec. 1823, F.O. 118/1, enclosing six copies of the Polignac Memorandum. See also Canning's remarks in the House on 3 Feb. 1824, Parliamentary Debates, n.s., x, 74.

^{page 151 note 1} Canning to Granville, 17 Dec. 1824, A. G. Stapleton, op. clt., p. 411.

^{page 151 note 2} Temperley, op. cit., pp. 146–47, 550–54; Canning to Hookham Frere, 8 Jan. 1825, Festing, op. cit., p. 268.

^{page 151 note 3} Heman Allen to Clay, 5 Nov. 1825, Manning, op. cit., ii, 1106. Cf. same to same, 4 April 1826, ibid., ii, 1112.

^{page 151 note 4} 15 June 1824. Parliamentary Debates, n.s., xi, 1381–88.

^{page 152 note 1} Manning, op. cit., iii, 1529.

^{page 152 note 2} See, on the above paragraph, Rippy, J. F., British Investments in Latin America, 1822–1949 (Minneapolis, 1959), pp. 17–26Google Scholar, and my Liberation in South America, 1806–1823 (London, 1952), pp. 138–42.

^{page 152 note 3} J. M. Forbes to J. Q. Adams, 17 Dec. 1824, Manning, op. cit., i, 644.

^{page 152 note 4} Hamilton to Planta, 8 March 1825, Webster, op. cit., i, 385–86.

^{page 153 note 1} The Diary and Journal of Richard Clough Anderson, p. 190.

^{page 153 note 2} Parish to Planta, 18 Feb. 1825, Webster, op. cit., i, 120.

^{page 153 note 3} Cody, op. cit., pp. 449–55; Rippy, Rivalry of the United State? and Great Britain over Latin America, pp. 248–302.

^{page 153 note 4} Ward to Canning, 27, 30 Sept. 1825, Webster, op. cit., i, 486–87, 489, 490.

^{page 153 note 5} Temperley, op. cit., p. 553.

^{page 154 note 1} 8 Jan. 1825. Festing, op. cit., pp. 267–68.

^{page 154 note 2} Bolivar to Santander, 10 July 1825, Bolivar, Simón, Obras Completas (ed. Vicente, Lecuna and Esther, Barret De Nazaris, 2 vols., Habana, 1947), iGoogle Scholar, 1129. Cf. same to same, 11 Mar. 1825, ibid., i, 1062.

^{page 154 note 3} Bolivar to Santander, 28 June 1825, ibid., i, 1120–21. Cf. Webster, op. cit., i, 399–400, 402, 532, 541–42.

^{page 154 note 4} Canning to Vaughan, 8 Feb. 1826, ibid., ii, 542–43.

^{page 155 note 1} Canning to Dawkins, 18 Mar. 1826, No. 1, ibid., i, 404.

^{page 155 note 2} Dawkins to Canning, 15 Oct. 1826, ibid., i, 423.

^{page 155 note 3} Heman Allen to Clay, 4 April 1826, Manning, op. cit., ii, 1112.

^{page 155 note 4} 11 Oct. 1825, A. G. Stapleton, op. cit., p. 446.

^{page 156 note 1} Canning to Granville, 21 Nov. 1825, ibid., p. 447.

^{page 156 note 2} Canning to Granville, 14 Dec. 1826, ibid., pp. 546–47.