This research was made possible by grants from the Appalachian College Association and the United States Information Agency. The author would like to thank the editors of Slavic Review and the three anonymous referees for their suggestions in revising this article. Epigraph from Catherine II, “The Grand Instruction to the Commissioners Appointed to Frame a New Code of Laws for the Russian Empire,” trans. M. Tatischeff, in Reddaway, W. F., ed., Documents of Catherine the Great: The Correspondence with Voltaire and the Instruction of 1767, in the English Text of 1768 (Cambridge, Eng., 1931), 256 Google Scholar.

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10. Michael Confino's monographic works, both based on the society's publications, remain the most indispensable sources on eighteenth- and nineteenth-century Russian agrarian history. See Domaines et seigneurs en Russie vers la fin du XVIII siècle (Paris, 1963); and Systèmes agraires et progrès agricole: L'assolement triennal en Russie aux XVIIIe-XIXe siècles (Paris, 1971). On the Free Economic Society and labor management on the great estates, see Aleksandrov, V, Sel'skaia obshchina v Rossii (XVII-nachalo XIX v.) (Moscow, 1976), 50–68 Google Scholar; and Rubinshtein, N. L., Sel'skoe khoziaistvo Rossii vo vtoroi polovine XVIII v. (Moscow, 1957), 144-82Google Scholar.

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15. Rossiiskii gosudarstvennyi istoricheskii arkhiv (hereafter RGIA), f. 91, op. 1, d. 394 (Vol'noe Ekonomicheskoe Obshchestvo), 1. 5; d. 13,11. 27, 36.

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19. RGIA, f. 91, op. 1, d. 41,11. 295ob.-296ob.

20. For a useful discussion of the “conflict between the new value of legality and the persistence of traditional modes of organization,” see David L. Ransel, “Character and Style of Patron-Client Relations in Russia,” in Maczak, Antoni and Mueller-Leuckner, Elisabeth, eds., Klientelsysteme imEuropa derEriihen Neuzeit (Munich, 1988), 214-24CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

21. Trudy Vol'nago Ekonomicheskago Obshchestva (hereafter Trudy), no. 1 (1765): no pagination.

22. Zhivov, V M., “Gosudarstvennyi mif v epokhu prosveshcheniia i ego razrushenie v Rossii kontsa XVIII veka,” in Koshelev, A.D., ed., h istorii russkoi kul'tury, vol. 4, (XVII-nachalo XIX veka) (Moscow, 1996), 668 Google Scholar.

23. Baehr, Stephen, The Paradise Myth in Eighteenth-Century Russia: Utopian Patterns in Early Secular Russian Literature and Culture (Stanford, 1991), 65–67, 78-79Google Scholar.

24. Bolotov, Andrei Timofeevich, Zapiski Andreia Timofeevicha Bolotova, 1737-1796, 2 vols. (Tula, 1988), 1:436-37Google Scholar.

25. Wortman, Richard, Scenarios of Power: Myth and Ceremony in Russian Monarchy, 2 vols. (Princeton, 1995), 1:144-45Google Scholar.

26. RGIA, f. 91, op. 1, d. 32, 11. 116ob.-117.

27. On women's interest in bees and Pastor Schirach's contributions to apiculture, see Lowood, , Patriotism, Profit, and the Promotion of Science, 77–78, 176-77Google Scholar. Catherine was impressed enough with Schirach's published work to provide full support for the apiculture students. See RGIA, f. 91, op. 1, d. 7,11. 50, 53ob-54, 69; d. 8,1. 23ob.

28. RGIA, f. 91, op. 1, d. 15,11. 22-23; d. 17,1. 3ob; d. 18,1. 18.

29. This was one of the society's earliest decisions. See RGIA, f. 91, op. 1, d. 1, 1. 27.

30. RGIA, f. 91, op. 1, d. 44,11. 113-14, 289-90.

31. Catherine had an extraordinary commission formed to devise a plan for the “agricultural class.” The commission included, among others, four future members of the Free Economic Society and Mikhail Lomonosov. See document 254 in Bilarskii, P. S., ed., Material﹜ dlia biografii Lomonosova (St. Petersburg, 1865), 616 Google Scholar. The four commission members who later joined the society were Johann Leman, Fedor Epinus, Gerhard Mtiller, and Ivan Taubert.

32. See “Mnenie o uchrezhdenii gosudarstvennoi kollegii (sel'skago) zemskago domostroistva,“ in Budilovich, Anton, ed., Lomonosov kak pisatel': Sbornik materialov dlia razsmotreniia avtorskoi deiatel'nosti Lomonosova (St. Petersburg, 1871), 313-14Google Scholar.

33. Prescott, James, “The Russian Free Economic Society: Foundation Years,” Agricultural History 51, no. 3 (1977): 505-6Google Scholar.

34. Ibid.

35. Madariaga, Isabel de, Russia in the Age of Catherine the Great (New Haven, 1981), 83 Google Scholar; Jones, Robert, The Emancipation of the Russian Nobility, 1762-85 (Princeton, 1973), 96–97 Google Scholar; Troitskii, S. M., “Kommissiia o vol'nosti dvorianstva 1763 g. (k voprosu o bor'be dvorianstva s absoliutizmom za svoi soslovnye prava),” in Rossiia v XVIII veke: Sbornik statei ipublikatsii (Moscow, 1982), 144-45Google Scholar.

36. Omel'chenko, Oleg, “Zakonnaia monarkhiia “Ekateriny II: Prosveshchennyi absoliutizm v Rossii (Moscow, 1993), 205-11Google Scholar; Leonard, Carol, Reform and Regicide: The Reign of Peter III of Russia (Bloomington, 1993), 24–32, 40Google Scholar.

37. Bartlett, , “The Free Economic Society,” 188 Google Scholar.

38. I. Taubert, “Plan Vol'nago Ekonomicheskago Obshchestva,” Trudy, no. 1 (1765): no pagination. For a detailed description of the society's co-founders, see Khodnev, A. I., Istoriia imperatorskago Vol'nago Ekonomicheskago Obshchestva s 1765 do 1865 goda (St. Petersburg, 1865), chapter 15Google Scholar; see also Confino, , Domaines et seigneurs, 24–26 Google Scholar; Oreshkin, V V, Vol'noeEkonomicheskoe Obshchestvo v Rossii, 1765-1917 (Moscow, 1963), 16–18 Google Scholar; Pratt, Joan Klobe, The Russian Free Economic Society, 1765-1915 (PhD diss., University of Missouri, 1983), 11–13 Google Scholar.

39. “Ustav Vol'nago Ekonomicheskago Obshchestva,” Trudy, no. 1 (1765): no pagination.

40. Mah, Harold, “Phantasies of the Public Sphere: Rethinking the Habermas of Historians,” Journal of Modern History 72, no. 1 (2000): 164 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

41. Ibid., 168.

42. “Rech', govorennaia v sobranii Ego Siatel'stvom Grafom Zakharom Grigor'evichem Chernyshevym,” Trudy, no. 1 (1765): 184.

43. “Priglashenie sel'skikh domostroitelei k chineniiu nekotorykh opytov kasaiushchikhsia do khlebopashestva,” Trudy, no. 13 (1769): 2 - 3, 6. Although the article appears anonymously, the minutes for the meeting of 2 December 1769 indicate that the assembly approved of Vorontsov's instructions “for bringing cereal cultures to greater perfection“ and agreed to publish them in part 13 of the Trudy. See RGIA, f. 91, op. 1, d. 6,1. 42.

44. Ushakov, Stepan, “Delo sovershenno ispytannoe v plodorodii ozimago khleba,“ Trudy, no. 23 (1773): 1–11 Google Scholar.

45. Model, , “Fizicheskiia i khimicheskiia razsuzhdeniia o natural'nom udobrenii semian, i o umnozhenii chrez to khleborodiia,” Trudy, no. 2 (1766): 75 Google Scholar.

46. Vucinich, Alexander, Science in Russian Culture: A History to 1860 (Stanford, 1963), 85–87, 141-43Google Scholar.

47. “Perevod rechi chitannoi kollezhskim sovetnikom G. Epinusom pri vstuplenii ego v Vol'noe Ekonomicheskoe Obshchestvo,” Trudy, no. 4 (1766): 198-99. On Epinus's rivalry with Lomonosov, see Home, R. W., “Science as a Career in Eighteenth-Century Russia: The Case of F. U. T. Aepinus,” Slavonic and East European Review 51, no. 2 (January 1973): 81–88 Google Scholar.

48. Timofei fon Klingshtet, “Preduvedomlenie,” Trudy, no. 1 (1765): no pagination.

49. “Rech', govorennaia g. pastorom Laksmanom v sobranii Vol'nago Ekonomicheskago Obshchestva,” Trudy, no. 11 (1769): 77, 84-85.

50. “Perevod sochineniia, prislannago v Vol'noe Ekonomicheskoe Obshchestvo v otvete na zadannyi v 1766 godu vopros: ‘Chtopoleznee dlia obshchestva, chtob krest'ianin imel v sobstvennosti zemliu, Hi tokmo dvizhimoe imenie, i skol’ daleko egoprava na to Hi drugoe imenie prostirat'sia dolzhnif” Trudy, no. 8 (1768): 8, 23-25. See also Semevskii, , Krest'ianskii vopros, 1:60 Google Scholar; Beliavskii, , Krest'ianskii vopros, 299–300 Google Scholar; Kingston-Mann, Esther, In Search of the True West: Culture, Economics, and Problems of Russian Development (Princeton, 1999), 45 Google Scholar.

51. RGIA, f. 91, op. 1, d. 5,11. 34-36. The eleven members in favor of publishing the essay included G. G. Orlov, V. G. Orlov, L. Euler, A. Euler, I. G. Chernyshev, Z. G. Chernyshev, R. I. Vorontsov, G. N. Teplov, I. I. Melissino, J. Sievers, I. Taubert. The following fifteen members voted against publishing the translation: A. S. Stroganov, A. V Olsuf'ev, A. A. Nartov, A. V Oleshev, T. fon Klingshtet, C. Peken, Model, F. fon Vol'f, I. R Falk, Ekleben, A. I. Cherkasov, V. fon Pol'man, F. Udolov, F. Epinus, J. J. von Stählin. The minutes to the assembly meeting do not clarify which member cast the sixteenth vote against publishing the essay.

52. Bartlett, , “The Free Economic Society,” 204 Google Scholar.

53. RGIA, f. 91, op. 1, d. 5,11. 36-37; reprinted in Beliavskii, M. T., “Novye dokumenty ob obsuzhdenii krest'ianskogo voprosa v 1766-1768 gg.” in Arkheograficheskii ezhegodnik za 1958 (Moscow, 1958), 406 Google Scholar.

54. RGIA, f. 91, op. 1, d. 5,11. 51-52. There is a discrepancy between the statute, which required members to submit three pieces a year, and Nartov's less demanding condition of a single piece annually. In any case, the vast majority of members failed to meet either requirement.

55. RGIA, f. 91, op. 1, d. 6,1. 40.

56. Ibid., 1.41.

57. “Ustav Vol'nago Ekonomicheskago Obshchestva s populneniiami k prezhnemu, utverzhdennyi obshchim soglasiem chlenov Fevralia 24 dnia, 1770 goda,” Trudy, no. 17 (1771): 190-213.

58. RGIA, f. 91, op. 1, d. 6,1. 42. The donations came from the following men: G. G. Orlov, A. S. Stroganov, R. I. Vorontsov, I. G. Chernyshev, V. G. Orlov, A. R Melgunov, A. I. Cherkasov, K, E Kruze, J. Sievers, G. N. Teplov, V fon Pol'man. Subsequent contributions in the next two years came from six more members of varying social status: A. G. Demidov, K. von Sievers, A. F. Turchaninov, Pavel G. Demidov, K. G. Razumovskii, I. S. Boriatinskii. See RGIA, f. 91, op. 1, d. 7,11. 46-47; d. 8,1. 2; d. 10,11. 11, 49, 57.

59. Gize, M. E., “Andrei Andreevich Nartov (biograficheskii ocherk),” in Kraevedcheskie zapiski: lssledovaniia i materialy, vol. 4 (St. Petersburg, 1996), 14–15 Google Scholar.

60. For a complete list of the society's essay competitions for the 1770s and 1780s (including sponsors, premiums, and winners), see Khodnev, , htoriia imperatorskago Vol'nago Ekonomicheskago Obshchestva, 370-80Google Scholar.

61. Griffiths, , “Catherine II's Charters,” 74–75 Google Scholar; Wirtschafter, , Play of Ideas, 85 Google Scholar.

62. Habermas, , Structural Transformation, 38 Google Scholar.

63. Confino, , Domaines et seigneurs, 134 Google Scholar.

64. Membership rolls after 1788 included past and future war heroes such as Aleksei Orlov-Chesmenskii, Mikhail Kutuzov, Aleksandr Samoilov, Aleksei Seniavin, and Petr Arshenevskii; representatives of the Rumiantsev, Durnovo, Passek and Iusupov families; outstanding domestic administrators like Aleksandr Bekleshev and Nikolai Arkharov; and Catherine's last favorite Platon Zubov. Moreover, in 1792 the assembly began corresponding with Nikita Beketov, the former governor of Astrakhan'who since 1780 had devoted himself to improving his estate in Saratov guberniia. Although a notable member of the Generalitet whose long career included service at Empress Elizabeth's court, significant military action in the Seven Years’ War, and a productive tenure as Astrakhan’ governor, from the assembly's point of view Beketov was primarily a “true estate manager [domostroitel’]“ in the same class as the society's most industrious and knowledgeable provincial correspondents. See RGIA, f. 91, op. 1, d. 42,11. 170-74. As part of his service to the society, Beketov joined twenty other provincial correspondents in a study on the uses of trostnikovoi, a fibrous plant native to many parts of Russia. Correspondents on this project included two other high-ranking aristocrats (Orlov-Chesmenskii among them); a handful of mid-level retired landowners, such as Vasilii Levshin and Andrei Bolotov; several Volga German colonists; two merchants; and a number of economic directors. See “Izvestiia Vol'nago Ekonomicheskago Obshchestva s 13 Dekabria po 8 Dekabria 1792 goda,“ Prodolzhenie Trudov Vol'nago Ekonomicheskago Obshchestva (hereafter Prodolzhenie Trudov), no. 18 (1793): 377, 397-98.

65. Vorontsov, R., “O zavedenii zapasnogo khleba,” Trudy, no. 2 (1766): 1–10 Google Scholar; “O sposobakh k ispravleniiu sel'skago domostroitel'stva,” Trudy, no. 5 (1767): 1-12; “Priglashenie sel'skikh domostroitelei,” Trudy, no. 13 (1769): 1-6; S. Ushakov, “Delo sovershenno,“ Trudy, no. 23 (1773): 1-28; “Dopolnenie o plodorodii ozimago khleba,” Trudy, no. 23 (1773): 29-40; “O dernovoi krovle,” Trudy, no. 23 (1773): 41-50; Sievers, J., “O razplod zemlianykh iablok,” Trudy, no. 5 (1767): 201-5Google Scholar; Konovitsyn, P., “O proizrastenii kyrlyka,“ Trudy, no. 40 (1790): 39–48 Google Scholar; “Izvestie o mashine dlia riazlomaniia l'da,” Trudy, no. 40 (1790): 49-53; Lunin, A., “Opisanie novoi kirpichnago zavoda pechi,” Trudy, no. 47 (1793): 90–124 Google Scholar.

66. Petr Svistunov, Adam fon Bril, Fedor Angal't, and Aleksandr Svechin.

67. R. I. Vorontsov, A. V Olsuf'ev, A. I. Cherkasov, G. N. Teplov, V R. fon Pol'man, V G. Orlov, A. S. Stroganov, P. N. Trubetskoi, T. I. Ostervald, S. F. Ushakov, K. A. fon Bok, S. I. Viazemskii, I. F. fon Lipgard.

68. The society did not begin to record attendance at assembly meetings until late 1766. For this reason, Table 2 begins with 1767, the first year for which we have complete data.

69. For a useful description of assembly meetings in the 1760s and 1770s, based on the correspondence of society member Albrecht Euler, see Bartlett, , “The Free Economic Society,” 189 Google Scholar.

70. See the undated, unsigned note addressing these procedural issues in RGIA, f. 91, op. 1, d. 394,1. 17. Given the note's references to the four-month presidential term, it was probably written in the 1760s.

71. RGIA, f. 91, op. 1, d. 25,1. 62; d. 27,11. 9, 34ob.

72. Aurova, N. N., “Idei prosveshcheniia v 1-m kadetskom korpuse (konets XVIIIpervaia chetvert’ XIX v.),” Vestnik Moskovskogo universiteta, series 8, istoriia, no. 1 (1996): 35 Google Scholar.

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74. Aurova, , “Idei prosveshcheniia v 1-m kadetskom korpuse,” 36–37 Google Scholar; Glinka, Fedor, “1-i kadetskii korpus volyn’ i dal'neishiia snosheniia moi s Miloradovichem,” Moskvitianin 1, no. 1 (1846): 35–38 Google Scholar.

75. RGIA, f. 91, op. 1, d. 30,11. 164ob., 170-72.

76. RGIA, f. 91, op. 1, d. 32,11. 21-22; see also “Raznyia proizshestviia s 28-go Oktiabria 1788 goda, vo vremia prezidentstva Grata Angal'ta po 28-e Oktiabria, 1789 goda,“ Prodolzhenie Trudov, no. 40 (1790): 249-50.

77. “Privetstvie k Prezidentu Ekonomicheskago Obshchestva, govorennoe Nadvornym Sovetnikom i Kavelerom A. Eulerom 10 Dekabria 1793 goda,” Prodolzhenie Trudov, no. 19 (1794): 336-39.

78. RGIA, f. 91, op. 1, d. 47,11. 188-89ob., 191.

79. So extensive was the overlap between the Academy and the society that out of the fifty-two persons admitted into the Academy between 1750 and 1796, twenty-two joined the society. Many of them became active members. See Akademiia nauk SSSR: Personal'nyi sostav (Moscow, 1974), 17-29.

80. Among them were many leaders of Russia's first generation of literati: Mikhail Kheraskov, Grigorii Kozitskii, Nikolai Motonis, Petr Pastukhov, Vasilii Maikov, Ivan Glebovskii, and Vasilii Ruban, to name only a few.

81. Gize, , “Andrei Andreevich Nartov,” 7–13 Google Scholar; Novikov, N., Opyt istoricheskago slovaria o rossiiskikh pisateliakh (Moscow, 1772)Google Scholar.

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84. RGIA, f. 91, op. 1, d. 17, 11. 10-11, 26. Bolotov confirms that the organization's troubles in the late 1770s were caused in part by Nartov's resignation. See Zapiski Andreia Tirnofeevicha Bolotova, 2:346.

85. RGIA, f. 91, op. 1, d. 30,11. 77ob.-78.

86. RGIA, f. 91, op. 1, d. 47,1. 240.

87. Brown, J. H., “The Publication and Distribution of the Trudy,” 347-49Google Scholar. In a brief autobiographical note dating from the mid-1780s, Nartov gives his salary as 2,375 rubles. See Nartov, A. A., Rasskazy oPetre Velikom (po avtorskoi rukopisi) (St. Petersburg, 2001), 55 Google Scholar. In 1772, the society published a model accounting manual for a “typical” service noble residing in St. Petersburg. The author assumed a base income of 20,000 rubles, nearly ten times the amount that Nartov earned annually. See Regensburger, J., “O razdelenii izvestnoi summy nagodovoi prozhitok,” Trudy, no. 21 (1772): 120-21Google Scholar. On Nartov's lifestyle, see Labzina, Anna Evdokimovna, Days of a Russian Noblewoman: The Memories of Anna Labzina, 1758-1821, trans, and ed. Marker, Gary and May, Rachel (DeKalb, 2001), 65 Google Scholar.

88. RGIA, f. 91, op. 1, d. 47,1. 237ob.

89. Sbornik imperatorskogo russkogo istoricheskogo obshchestva, no. 23 (1873): 627-28.

90. RGIA, f. 91, op. 1, d. 53,11. 275ob.-277ob.

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