Hostname: page-component-7479d7b7d-8zxtt Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-11T03:20:12.195Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

‘In this Chambered Tumulus were Found Cleft Skulls …’: an Assessment of the Evidence for Cranial Trauma in the British Neolithic

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 February 2014

Rick J. Schulting  and
Michael Wysocki
Rick J. Schulting
Affiliation:
School of Archaeology and Palaeoecology, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast BT7 1NN (e-mail: r.schulting@qub.ac.uk)
Michael Wysocki
Affiliation:
Department of Forensic and Investigative Science, University of Central Lancashire, Preston PR1 3HE (e-mail: mpwysocki@uclan.ac.uk)
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Interpersonal violence is a powerful expression of human social interaction. Yet a consideration of violence in the past has done relatively little to inform our discussions of the British Neolithic. Here, we present the results of an examination of some 350 earlier Neolithic crania from mainly southern Britain. Of these, 31 show healed or unhealed injuries suggestive of interpersonal violence. We suggest a conservative estimate of 2% fatal cranial injuries, and 4 or 5% healed injuries. These data are used as a platform to discuss possible contexts for, and consequences of, violence. We argue that, regardless of its actual prevalance, the reality or the threat of interpersonal violence can have an important affect on both the behaviour of individuals and the structure of society.

Interpersonal

La violence entre personnes est une puissante expression de l'interaction sociale humaine. Pourtant une étude de la violence dans le passé n'a apporté que relativement peu d'informations pour nourrir nos discussions du néolithique britannique. Nous présentons ici les résultats d'un examen de quelques 350 crânes du néolithique ancien provenant essentiellement du sud de la Grande-Bretagne. Parmi ceuxci, 31 portent des traces de blessures, cicatrisées ou non, suggérant un acte de violence entre personnes. Nous proposons une estimation prudente de 1% de blessures crâniennes mortelles, et 4 à 5% de blessures cicatrisées. Ces données sont utilisées comme point de départ afin d'examiner les contextes possibles, et les conséquences de la violence. Nous argumentons que, sans faire aucun cas de sa prédominence véritable, la violence entre les personnes, qu'elle soit réelle ou simple menace, peut avoir un effet important à la fois sur le comportement des individus et la structure de la société.

Zusammenfassung

Zwischenmenschliche Gewalt ist Ausdruck menschlicher sozialer Interaktion. Dennoch hat eine Betrachtung von Gewalt in der Vergangenheit relativ wenig zu den Diskussionen zum Britischen Neolithikum beigetragen. In diesem Artikel präsentieren wir die Ergebnisse einer Untersuchung von c. 350 frühneolithischen Schädeln überwiegend aus dem südlichen Großbritannien. Von diesen zeigen 31 verheilte oder unverheilte Verletzungen, die auf zwischenmenschliche Gewalt hinweisen. Wir gehen in einer konservativen Schätzung von 2% fatalen Schädelverletzungen, und von 4 oder 5% verheilter Verletzungen aus. Diese Daten werden als Grundlage zur Diskussion über mögliche Kontexte für und als Konsequenz von Gewalt benützt. Wir argumentieren, dass ungeachtet ihrer tatsächlichen Verbreitung, die Bedrohung durch zwischenmenschliche Gewalt einen wichtigen Affekt sowohl auf das Verhalten von Individuen als auch auf die Struktur einer Gesellschaft haben kann.

Résumen

La violencia interpersonal es una poderosa expresión de interacción social humana. Pero hasta ahora una consideración de la violencia en el pasado ha conseguido relativamente poco a la hora de informar nuestras discusiones sobre el Neolítico británico. Aquí presentamos los resultados de un examen de unos 350 cráneos del primer neolítico procedentes en su mayoría del sur de Inglaterra. De estos, 31 evidencian heridas curadas o no curadas, que parecen indicar violencia interpersonal. Sugerimos un cálculo prudente de un 2% de heridas craneales fatales, y un 4 o 5% de heridas curadas. Esta información sirve como plataforma para la discusión de los posibles contextos para, y las consecuencias de, la violencia. Sostenemos que, independientemente de su prevalencia real, la realidad o la amenaza de violencia interpersonal puede tener un efecto importante sobre el comportamiento de los individuos y sobre la estructura de la sociedad.

Type
Research Article
Information
Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society , Volume 71 , 2005 , pp. 107 - 138
Copyright
Copyright © The Prehistoric Society 2005

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Abbink, J. 1999. Violence, ritual and reproduction: culture and context in Surma duelling. Ethnology 38, 227–42CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alvrus, A. 1999. Fracture patterns among the Nubians of Semna South, Sudanese Nubia. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 9, 417–293.0.CO;2-4>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arnott, R., Finger, S. & Smith, C.U.M. (eds), Trepanation: history, discovery, theoy. Lisse: Swets & ZeitlingerCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Atkinson, R.J.C. 1965. Wayland's Smithy. Antiquity 39, 126–33CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Atkinson, R.J.C. 1968. Old mortality: some aspects of burial and population in Neolithic England. In Coles, J.M. & Simpson, D.D.A. (eds), Studies in Ancient Europe: essays presented to Stuart Piggott, 83–93. Leicester: University PressGoogle Scholar
Barclay, A. & Hey, G. 1999. Cattle, cursus monuments and the river: the development of ritual and domestic landscapes in the Upper Thames Valley. In Barclay, A. & Harding, J. (eds), Pathways and Ceremonies: the cursus monuments of Britain and Ireland, 67–76. Oxford: OxbowGoogle Scholar
Barfield, T.J. 1993. The Nomadic Alternative. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-HallGoogle Scholar
Barrett, J.C. 1994. Fragments from Antiquity. Oxford: BlackwellGoogle Scholar
Baxter, M. 1999. Dancing with the dead in a mass grave. British Archaeology 50, 6–7Google Scholar
Bennett, F.J. 1913. Coldrum monument and exploration 1910. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 43, 76–85Google Scholar
Bennike, P. 1985. Palaeopathology of Danish Skeletons. Copenhagen: Akademisk ForlagGoogle Scholar
Bennike, P. 2003. Ancient trepanations and differential diagnoses: a re-evaluation of skeletal remains from Denmark. In Arnott, et al. (eds) 2003, 95–115Google Scholar
Berryman, H.E. & Haun, S.J. 1996. Applying forensic techniques to interpret cranial fracture patterns in an archaeological specimen. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 6, 2–93.0.CO;2-R>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berryman, H.E., Smith, O.C. & Symes, S.A. 1995. Diameter of cranial gunshot wounds as a function of bullet caliber. Journal of Forensic Sciences 40, 751–4CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bird, H. 1865. An account of the human bones found in the round and long tumuli, situated on the Cotswold Hills, near Cheltenham. Journal of the Anthropological Society 3, 65–74Google Scholar
Bradley, R. 1984. The Social Foundations of Prehistoric Britain. New York: LongmanGoogle Scholar
Bradley, R. 1986. A reinterpretation of the Abingdon causewayed enclosure. Oxoniensia 51, 183–7Google Scholar
Bradley, R. 1987. Flint technology and the character of Neolithic settlement. In Brown, A.G. & Edmonds, M.R. (eds), Lithic Analysis and Late British Prehistory, 181–5. Oxford: British Archaeological Report 162Google Scholar
Bradley, R. 1993. Altering the Earth: the origins of monuments in Britain and Continental Europe. Edinburgh: Society of Antiquaries of ScotlandGoogle Scholar
Bradley, R. 1998. Interpreting enclosures. In Edmonds, M. & Richards, C. (eds), Understanding the Neolithic of North-Western Europe, 188–203. Glasgow: Cruithne PressGoogle Scholar
Bradley, R. 2000. An Archaeology of Natural Places. London: RoutledgeGoogle Scholar
Bradley, R. & Edmonds, M. 1993. Interpreting the Axe Trade. Cambridge: University PressGoogle Scholar
Bradley, R. & Ford, S. 1986. The siting of Neolithic stone quarries: experimental archaeology at Great Langdale, Cumbria. Oxford Journal of Archaeology 5, 123–8CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brewster, T.C.M. 1984. The Excavation of Whitegrounds Barrow, Burythorpe. Wintringham: John GentGoogle Scholar
Brothwell, D.R. 1961. The palaeopathology of early British man: an essay on the problems of diagnosis and analysis. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 91, 318–44Google Scholar
Brothwell, D.R. 2003. The future direction of research. In Arnott, et al. (eds) 2003, 365–72Google Scholar
Brothwell, D.R. & Blake, M.L. 1966. The human remains from Fussell's Lodge long barrow: their morphology, discontinuous traits and pathology. Archaeologia 100, 48–63Google Scholar
Brothwell, D.R. & Cullen, R. 1991. The human bone. In Whittle, A., Wayland's Smithy, Oxfordshire: excavations at the Neolithic tomb in 1962–63 by R.J.C. Atkinson and S. Piggott. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 57(2), 72–80Google Scholar
Burton, J. 1987. Exchange pathways at a stone axe factory in Papua New Guinea. In Sieveking, G. de G. & Newcomer, M. (eds), The Human Uses of Flint and Chert, 183–91. Cambridge: University PressGoogle Scholar
Camps, F.E., Chandra, H. & Dawes, J.D. 1987. Human bone. In Robertson-Mackay, R., The Neolithic causewayed enclosure at Staines, Surrey: excavations 1961–63. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 53, appendix 6, 6–20Google Scholar
Cannon, A. 1992. Conflict and salmon on the Interior Plateau of British Columbia. In Hayden, B. (ed.), A Complex Culture of the British Columbia Plateau: Traditional Stl'átl'imx Resource Use, 506–24. Vancouver: UBC PressGoogle Scholar
Carman, J. (ed.) 1997. Material Harm: archaeological studies of war and violence. Glasgow: Cruithne PressGoogle Scholar
Caulfield, S. 1983. The Neolithic settlement of North Connaught. In Reeves-Smyth, T. & Hammond, F. (eds), Landscape Archaeology in Ireland, 195–216. Oxford: British Archaeological Report 116Google Scholar
Chagnon, N.A. 1988. Life histories, blood revenge, and warfare in a tribal population. Science 239, 985–92CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chagnon, N.A. 1997. Yanomamö. Orlando: Harcourt Brace 5th ednGoogle Scholar
Chapman, J. 1999. The origins of warfare in the prehistory of central and eastern Europe. In Carman, J. & Harding, A. (eds), Ancient Warfare, 101–42. Stroud: SuttonGoogle Scholar
Chege, N., Sartoris, D.J., Tyson, R. & Resnick, D. 1996. Imaging evaluation of skull trepanation using radiography and CT. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 6, 249–583.0.CO;2-J>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chesterman, J.T. 1977. Burial rites in a Cotswold long barrow. Man N.S. 12, 22–32CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cleal, R.M.J., Walker, K.E & Montague, R. 1995. Stonehenge in its Landscape. London: English Heritage Archaeological Report 10Google Scholar
Clark, J.G.D. 1963. Neolithic bows from Somerset, England, and the prehistory of archery in north-western Europe. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 29, 50–98CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Codere, H. 1950. Fighting with Property. Seattle: University of Washington PressGoogle Scholar
Codry-Collins, A. 2001. Decapitation in Cupisnique and Early Moche societies. In Benson, E. & Cook, A.G. (eds), Ritual Sacrifice in Ancient Peru, 21–33. Austin: University of Texas PressCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coles, J.M. 1977. Parade and display: experiments in Bronze Age Europe. In Markotic, V. (ed.), Ancient Europe and the Mediterranean: studies in honour of Hugh Hencken, 51–8. Warminster: Aris & PhillipsGoogle Scholar
Coles, J.M., Hibbert, F.A. & Orme, B.J. 1973. Prehistoric roads and tracks in Somerset, England: 3. The Sweet Track. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 39, 256–93CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cooney, G. 2000. Landscapes of Neolithic Ireland. London: RoutledgeGoogle Scholar
Coper-Rougier, E. 1986. ‘Le Mai Court’: visible and invisible violence in an acephalous society – Mkako of Cameroon. In Riches, D. (ed.), The Anthropology of Violence, 50–69. Oxford: BlackwellGoogle Scholar
Corcoran, J.X.W.P. 1967. Excavation of three chambered cairns at Loch Calder, Caithness. Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland 98, 1–75CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crawford, O.G.S. 1925. The Long Barrows of the Cotswolds. GloucesterGoogle Scholar
Dawson, D. 1996. The origins of war: biological and anthropological theories. History and Theory 35, 1–28CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Darbishire, R.D. 1874. Notes on discoveries in Ehenside Tarn, Cumberland. Archaeologia 44, 273–92CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DiMaio, V.J.M. 1999. Gunshot Wounds: practical aspects of firearms, ballistics and forensic techniques. Boca Raton: CRC PressGoogle Scholar
Dixon, P. 1988. The Neolithic settlements on Crickley Hill. In Burgess, C., Topping, P., Mordant, C. & Maddison, M. (eds), Enclosures and Defences in the Neolithic of Western Europe, 75–87. Oxford: British Archaeological Report S403Google Scholar
Donald, L. 1997. Aboriginal Slavery on the Northwest Coast of North America. Berkeley & Los Angeles: University of California PressGoogle Scholar
Earnshaw, J.R. 1973. The site of a medieval post mill and prehistoric site at Bridlington. Yorkshire Archaeological Journal 45, 19–40Google Scholar
Edmonds, M.R. 1995. Stone Tools and Society: working stone in Neolithic and Bronze Age Britain. London: BatsfordGoogle Scholar
Edmonds, M.R. & Thomas, J. 1987. The Archers: an everyday story of country folk. In Brown, A.G. & Edmonds, M. (eds), Lithic Analysis and Later British Prehistory, 187–99. Oxford: British Archaeological Report 162Google Scholar
Elton, H. 1996. Warfare in Roman Europe AD 350–425. Oxford: ClarendonGoogle Scholar
Ember, C.R. & Ember, M. 1997. Violence in the ethnographic record: results of cross-cultural research on war and aggression. In Martin, & Frayer, (eds) 1997, 1–20Google Scholar
Evans-Pritchard, E.E. 1940. The Nuer. Oxford: ClarendonGoogle Scholar
Everton, A. & Everton, R. 1972. Hay Wood Cave burials, Mendip Hills, Somerset. Proceedings of the University of Bristol Spelaeological Society 13, 5–29Google Scholar
Ewers, J.C. 1994. Women's roles in Plains Indian warfare. In Owsley, D.W & Jantz, R. (eds), The Skeletal Biology of the Plains, 325–32. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution PressGoogle Scholar
Ferguson, R.B. 1984. Introduction: studying war. In Ferguson, R.B. (ed.), Warfare, Culture and Environment, 1–81. New York: AcademicGoogle Scholar
Fortune, R. 1939. Arapesh warfare. American Anthropologist 41, 22–41CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fukai, K. & Turton, D. (eds). 1979. Warfare Among East African Herders. Osaka: National Museum of EthnologyGoogle Scholar
Gardner, R. & Heider, K.G. 1974. Gardens of War. Harmondsworth: PenguinGoogle Scholar
Garson, J.G. 1905. On the crania and other human remains found in the barrow at Howe Hill (no. 273), Duggleby. In Mortimer, J.R., Forty Years' Researches in British and Saxon Burial-Mounds of East Yorkshire, 30–9. London: A. BrownGoogle Scholar
Gat, A. 1999. The pattern of fighting in simple, small-scale, prestate societies. Journal of Anthropological Research 55, 563–83CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gibson, A.M. & Simpson, D.D.A. 1987. Lyles Hill, Co. Antrim. Archaeology Ireland 1, 72–5Google Scholar
Green, C., Bellwood, P., Hammond, N. & Case, H. 1970. Neolithic comments. Antiquity 44, 105–14CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Green, H.S. 1980. The Flint Arrowheads of the British Isles. Oxford: British Archaeological Report 75Google Scholar
Greenwell, W. 1877. British Barrows. Oxford: ClarendonGoogle Scholar
Gronenborn, D. 2001. Zum (möglichen) Nachweis von Sklaven/Unfreien in prähistorischen Gesellschaften Mitteleuropas. Ethnographische-Archäologische Zeitschrift 42, 1–42Google Scholar
Gurdjian, E.S., Webster, J.E. & Lissner, H.R. 1950. The mechanism of skull fracture. Radiology 54, 313–39CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Halbmayer, E. 2001. Socio-cosmological contexts and forms of violence: war, vendetta and suicide among the Yukpa or north-western Venezuela. In Schmidt, B.E. & Schröder, I.W. (eds), Anthropology of Violence and Conflict, 50–75. London: RoutledgeGoogle Scholar
Haas, J. (ed.) 1990. The Anthropology of War. Cambridge: University PressGoogle Scholar
Haas, J. & Creamer, W.. 1997. Warfare among the pueblos: myth, history, and ethnography. Ethnohistory 44, 235–61CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hayano, D.M. 1974. Marriage, alliance, and warfare: a view from the New Guinea Highlands. American Ethnologist 1, 281–93CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hayden, B. 1996. Thresholds of power in emergent complex societies. In Arnold, J. (ed.), Emergent Social Complexity, 50–58Ann Arbor: International Monographs in PrehistoryGoogle Scholar
Helms, M.W. 1988. Ulysses' Sail. Princeton: University PressCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hodder, I. 1990. The Domestication of Europe. Oxford: BlackwellGoogle Scholar
Hoskins, J. 1996. Introduction: headhunting as practice and as trope. In Hoskins, J. (ed.), Headhunting and the Social Imagination in Southeast Asia, 1–49. Stanford: University PressGoogle Scholar
Huddart, D., Gonzalez, S. & Roberts, G. 1999. The archaeological record and mid-Holocene marginal coastal palaeoenvironments around Liverpool Bay. Quaternary Proceedings 7, 563–74Google Scholar
Jurmain, R. 1999. Stories from the Skeleton: behavioural reconstruction in human osteology. New York: RoutledgeGoogle Scholar
Jurmain, R. 2001. Paleoepidemiolgical patterns of trauma in a prehistoric population from central California. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 115, 13–23CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jurmain, R. & Bellifemine, V.I. 1997. Patterns of cranial trauma in a prehistoric population from Central California. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 7, 43–503.0.CO;2-D>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaufman, M.H., Whitaker, D. & McTavish, J. 1997. Differential diagnosis of holes in the calvarium: application of modern clinical data to palaeopathology. Journal of Archaeological Science 24, 193–218CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keeley, L.H. 1996. War Before Civilization: the myth of the peaceful savage. Oxford: University PressGoogle Scholar
Kelly, R.C. 2000. Warless Societies and the Origins of War. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan PressCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kinnes, I. 1975. Monumental function in British Neolithic burial practices. World Archaeology 7, 16–29CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kinnes, I. 1992. Non-Megalithic Long Barrows and Allied Stuctures in the British Neolithic. London: British Museum Occasional Paper 52Google Scholar
Knight, B. 1991. Forensic Pathology. London: Edward ArnoldGoogle Scholar
Lambert, P.M. 1997. Patterns of violence in prehistoric hunter-gatherer societies of coastal southern California. In Martin, & Frayer, (eds) 1997, 77–110Google Scholar
Larradale, S. 1998. The context of Early Puebloan violence. In Bullock, P.Y. (ed.), Deciphering Anasazi Violence, 11–33. Santa Fe: HRM BooksGoogle Scholar
Lévi-Strauss, C. 1944. Guerre et commerce chex Indiens de l'Amerique du Sud. Renaissance 1, 122–39Google Scholar
Liddell, D.M. 1935. Report on the excavations at Hembury Fort, Devon (fourth and fifth seasons 1934 and 1935). Proceedings of the Devon Archaeological Exploration Society 2, 135–75Google Scholar
Logue, P. 2003. Excacations at Thornhill, Co. Londonderry. In Armit, I., Murphy, E., Nelis, E. & Simpson, D. (eds), Neolithic Settlement in Ireland and Western Britain, 149–55. Oxford: OxbowGoogle Scholar
Lovell, N.C. 1997. Trauma analysis in paleopathology. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology 40, 139–703.0.CO;2-#>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lucas, A.T. 1989. Cattle in Ancient Ireland. Kilkenny: BoethiusGoogle Scholar
Lynch, A. 1988. Poulnabrone – A stone in time … Archaeology Ireland 2, 105–7Google Scholar
Lynch, A. & Ó Donnabháin, B. 1994. Poulnabrone portal tomb. The Other Clare 18, 5–7Google Scholar
Mallory, J.P. & Hartwell, B. 1984. Donegore. Current Archaeology 92, 271–5Google Scholar
Maples, W.R. 1986. Trauma analysis by the forensic anthropologist. In Reichs, K.J. (ed.), Forensic Osteology: advances in the identification of human remains, 218–28. Springfield: Charles C. ThomasGoogle Scholar
Martin, D.L. & Frayer, D.W. (eds). 1997. Troubled Times: violence and warfare in the past. Amsterdam: Gordon & BreachGoogle Scholar
Martin, G. 2003. Why trepan? Contributions from medical history and the South Pacific. In Arnott, et al. (eds) 2003, 323–45Google Scholar
Maschner, H.D.G. 1997. The evolution of northwest coast warfare. In Martin, & Frayer, (eds) 1997, 267–302Google Scholar
McKinley, J.I. forthcoming. Human remains. In Mercer, R.J. & Healy, F. (eds), Hambledon Hill, Dorset, England. Excavation and Survey of a Neolithic Monument Complex and its Surrounding Landscape. Swindon: English Heritage Archaeological ReportsGoogle Scholar
McWilliams, A. 1996. Severed heads that germinate the state. In Hoskins, J. (ed.), Headhunting and the Social Imagination in Southeast Asia, 127–66. Stanford: University PressGoogle Scholar
Meggitt, M. 1977. Blood is their Argument: warfare among Mae Enga tribesmen of the New Guinea Highlands. Palo Alto: Mayfield PressGoogle Scholar
Mercer, R.J. 1980. Hambledon Hill: a Neolithic landscape. Edinburgh: University PressGoogle Scholar
Mercer, R.J. 1986. The Neolithic in Cornwall. Cornish Archaeology 15, 35–80Google Scholar
Mercer, R.J. 1988. Hambledon Hill, Dorest, England. In Burgess, C., Topping, P., Mordant, C. & Maddison, M. (eds), Enclosures and Defences in the Neolithic of Western Europe, 89–106. Oxford: British Archaeological Report S403Google Scholar
Mercer, R.J. 1989a. The earliest defences in western Europe. Part 1. Fortress 2, 16–22Google Scholar
Mercer, R.J. 1989b. The earliest defences in western Europe. Part 2. Fortress 3, 2–11Google Scholar
Mercer, R.J. 1990. The inception of farming in the British Isles and the emergence of Indo-European languages in NW Europe. In Markey, T.L. & Greppen, J.A.C. (eds), When Worlds Collide: Indo-Europeans and Pre-Indo-Europeans, 101–14. Ann Arbor: KaromaGoogle Scholar
Mercer, R.J. 1999. The origins of warfare in the British Isles. In Carman, J. & Harding, A. (eds), Ancient Warfare, 143–56. Stroud: SuttonGoogle Scholar
Mitchell, D. 1984. Predatory warfare, social status, and the North Pacific slave trade. Ethnology 23, 39–48CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Montgomery, J., Budd, P. & Evans, J. 2000. Reconstructing the lifetime movements of ancient people: a Neolithic case study from southern England. Journal of European Archaeology 3, 370–85CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Musgrave, G. 1857. Solway Moss. Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries 4, 112–13Google Scholar
Novak, S.A. 2000. Battle-related trauma. In Fiorato, V., Boylston, A. & Knüsel, C. (eds), Blood Red Roses: the archaeology of a mass grave from the Battle of Towton AD 1461, 90–102. Oxford: OxbowGoogle Scholar
Ortner, D.J. 2003. Identification of Pathological Conditions in Human Skeletal Remains. London: Academic (2nd edn)Google Scholar
Ortner, D.J. & Aufderheide, A.C. (eds). 1991. Human Paleopathology: current synthesis and future options. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution PressCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ortner, D.J. & Putschar, W.G.J. 1985. Identification of Pathological Conditions in Human Skeletal Remains. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution PressGoogle Scholar
Oswald, A., Dyer, C. & Barber, M. 2001. The Creation of Monuments: Neolithic causewayed enclosures in the British Isles. Swindon: English HeritageGoogle Scholar
Otterbein, K.F. 1968. Internal war: a cross-cultural study. American Anthropologist 70, 277–289.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Otterbein, K.F. 1999. A history of research on warfare in anthropology. American Anthropologist 101, 794–805CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Otterbein, K.F. 2000. Killing of captured enemies: a cross cultural study. Current Anthropology 41, 439–43CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Owsley, D.W. 1994. Warfare in coalescent tradition populations of the Northern Plains. In Owsley, D.W. & Jantz, R. (eds), The Skeletal Biology of the Plains, 333–43. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution PressGoogle Scholar
Paige, K.E. & Paige, J.M. 1981. The Politics of Reproductive Ritual. Berkeley: University of California PressCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parker, S., Roberts, C. & Manchester, K. 1986. A review of British trepanations with reports on two new cases. Ossa 12, 141–57Google Scholar
Passmore, A.D. 1942. Chute, barrow I. Wiltshire Archaeological Magazine 50, 100–1Google Scholar
Patterson, N. 1994. Cattle Lords and Clansmen. Notre Dame, Indiana: University PressCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Péquart, M. & Péquart, S.-J. 1954. Hoëdic, Deuxième Station-Nécropole du Mésolithique Côtier Armoricain. Anvers: De SikkelGoogle Scholar
Piggott, S. 1948. The excavations at Cairnpapple Hill, West Lothian, 1947–48. Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland 82, 68–123CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Piggott, S. 1954. The Neolithic Cultures of the British Isles. Cambridge: University PressGoogle Scholar
Piggott, S. 1962. The West Kennet Long Barrow. London: HMSOGoogle Scholar
Pitt-Rivers, A.L.F. 1898. Excavations at Cranborne Chase, Vol. IV. Privately printedGoogle Scholar
Pospisil, L. 1994. ‘I am very sorry I cannot kill you any more’: war and peace among the Kapauku. In Reyna, S.P. & Downs, R.E. (eds), Studying War: anthropological perspectives, 113–26 Reading: Gordon & BreachGoogle Scholar
Proulx, D.A. 2001. Ritual uses of trophy heads in ancient Nasca society. In Benson, E. & Cook, A.G. (eds), Ritual Sacrifice in Ancient Peru, 119–36. Austin: University of Texas PressCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pryor, F. 1976. A Neolithic multiple burial from Fengate. Antiquity 50, 232–3CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Quatrehomme, G. & Isçan, M.Y. 1998. Analysis of beveling in gunshot entrance wounds. Forensic Science International 93, 45–60CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Quatrehomme, G. & Isçan, M.Y. 1999. Characteristics of gunshot wounds in the skull. Journal of Forensic Sciences 44, 568–76CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ray, K. & Thomas, J. 2003. In the kinship of cows: the social centrality of cattle in the earlier Neolithic of southern Britain. In Pearson, M. Parker (ed.), Food, Culture and Identity in the Neolithic and Early Bronze Age, 37–44. Oxford: British Archaeological Report S1117Google Scholar
Reedy-Maschner, K.L. & Maschner, H.D.G. 1999. Marauding middlemen: western expansion and violent conflict in the Subarctic. Ethnohistory 46, 703–43Google Scholar
Richards, A. 1932. Hunger and Work in a Savage Tribe. A Functional Study of Nutrition among the Southern Bantu London: RoutledgeGoogle Scholar
Richards, M.P., Schulting, R.J. & Hedges, R.E.M. 2003. Sharp shift in diet at onset of Neolithic. Nature 425, 366CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Riches, D. 1986. The phenomenon of violence. In Riches, D. (ed.), The Anthropology of Violence, 1–27. Oxford: BlackwellGoogle Scholar
Riefenstahl, L. 1973. The East of the Nuba. New York: Harper & RowGoogle Scholar
Robb, J. 1997. Violence and gender in Italy. In Martin, & Frayer, (eds) 1997, 111–44Google Scholar
Robertson-Mackay, R. 1987. The Neolithic causewayed enclosure at Staines, Surrey: excavations 1961–63. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 53, 23–128CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rogers, J. 1990. The human skeletal material. In Saville, A. (ed.), Hazleton North: the excavation of a Neolithic long cairn of the Cotswold-Severn Group, 182–98. London: Historic Buildings and Monuments Commission for EnglandGoogle Scholar
Rolleston, G. 1876. On the people of the long barrow period. Journal Of the Anthropological Institute 5, 120–73Google Scholar
Rolleston, G. 1877. General remarks upon the series of prehistoric crania. In Greenwell, W. (ed.), British Barrows, 625–718. Oxford: ClarendonGoogle Scholar
Rosaldo, R. 1980. Ilongot Headhunting 1883–1974. Stanford: University PressCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rowley-Conwy, P. 2004. How the West was lost: a reconsideration of agricultural origins in Britain, Ireland, and southern Scandinavia. Current Anthropology 45 (supplement), S83–S113CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Saville, A. 2002. Lithic artefacts from Neolithic causewayed enclosures: character and meaning. In Varndell, G. & Topping, P. (eds), Enclosures in Neolithic Europe, 91–105. Oxford: OxbowGoogle Scholar
Schechner, R. 1993. Ritual, Violence, and Creativity. In Lavie, S., Narayan, K. & Rosaldo, R. (eds), Creativity/Anthropology, 296–320. Ithaca: Cornell University PressGoogle Scholar
Schroder, I.W. & Schmidt, B.E. 2001. Introduction: violent imaginaries and violent practices. In Schmidt, B.E. & Schroder, I.W. (eds), Anthropology of Violence and Conflict, 1–24. London: RoutledgeGoogle Scholar
Schulting, R.J. 1998. Slighting the Sea: the Mesolithic–Neolithic Transition in Northwest Europe. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Department of Archaeology, University of ReadingGoogle Scholar
Schulting, R.J. 2004. An Irish Sea change: some implications for the Mesolithic–Neolithic transition. In Cummings, V. & Fowler, C. (eds), The Neolithic of the Irish Sea: materiality and traditions of practice, 22–8. Oxford: OxbowGoogle Scholar
Schulting, R.J. & Wysocki, M. 2002. Cranial trauma in the British earlier Neolithic. Past 41, 4–6Google Scholar
Schwandner-Sievers, S. 2001. The enactment of ‘tradition’: Albanian constructions of identity, violence and power in times of crisis. In Schmidt, B.E. & Schröder, I.W. (eds), Anthropology of Violence and Conflict, 97–120. London: RoutledgeGoogle Scholar
Selkirk, A. 1971. Ascott-under-Wychwood. Current Archaeology 24, 7–10Google Scholar
Sharpies, N. 1991. Warfare in the Iron Age of Wessex. Scottish Archaeological Review 8, 79–89Google Scholar
Sharpies, N.M. (ed.) 1991. Maiden Castle: excavations and field survey 1985–6. London: Historic Buildings and Monuments Commission for EnglandGoogle Scholar
Sheridan, A. 1996. The oldest bow and other objects. Current Archaeology 149, 188–90Google Scholar
Smith, M.O. 1996. Parry fractures and female-directed interpersonal violence: Implications from the Late Archaic Period of west Tennessee. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 6, 84–913.0.CO;2-G>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, M.O. 1997. Osteological indicators of warfare in the Archaic period of the Western Tennessee Valley. In Martin, & Frayer, (eds) 1997, 241–66Google Scholar
Smith, M.O. 2003. Beyond palisades: the nature and frequency of late prehistoric deliberate violent trauma in the Chickamauga Reservoir of East Tennessee. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 121, 303–18CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smith, O.C., Pope, E.J. & Symes, S.A. 2003. Look until you see: identification of trauma in skeletal material. In Steadman, D.W. (ed.), Hard Evidence: case studies in forensic anthropology, 138–54. Upper Saddle River: Prentice HallGoogle Scholar
Stallibrass, S. & Huntley, J.P. 1996. Slim evidence: a review of the faunal and botanical data from the Neolithic of northern England. In Frodsham, P. (ed.), Neolithic Studies in No-Man's Land, 35–42. Northern Archaeology 13/14Google Scholar
Standen, V.G. & Arriaza, B.T. 2000. Trauma in the preceramic coastal populations of northern Chile: violence or occupational hazards? American Journal of Physical Anthropology 112, 239–493.0.CO;2-3>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stewart, P.J. & Strathern, A. 2002. Violence: theory and ethnography. London: ContinuumGoogle Scholar
Strathern, A. 1992. Let the bow go down. In Ferguson, R.B. & Whitehead, N.L. (eds), War in the Tribal Zone: expanding states and indigenous warfare, 229–50. Sante Fe: School of American Research PressGoogle Scholar
Teschler-Nicola, M., Gerold, F., Kanz, F., Lindenbauer, K. & Spannagl, M. 1996. Anthropologische Spurensicherung: die Traumatischen und Postmortalen Veränderungen an den Linearbandkeramischen Skelettresten von Asparn/Schletz. Archäologie 7, 4–12Google Scholar
Thomas, J. 1988. The social significance of Cotswold-Severn burial practices. Man 23, 540–59CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thomas, J. 1999. Understanding the Neolithic. London: RoutledgeGoogle Scholar
Thorpe, I.J. 1984. Ritual, power and ideology: a reconstruction of earlier Neolithic rituals in Wessex. In Bradley, R. & Gardiner, J. (eds), Neolithic Studies: a review of some current research, 41–60. Oxford: British Archaeological Report 133Google Scholar
Thorpe, I.J. 2003. Anthropology, archaeology, and the origin of war. World Archaeology 35, 145–65CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thurnam, J. 1856. On a cromlech-tumulus called Lugbury, near Littleton Drew. Wiltshire Archaeological Magazine 3, 164–77Google Scholar
Thurnam, J. 1865. On the two principal forms of ancient British and Gaulish skulls. Part II. Memoirs of the Anthropological Society 1865, 459–519Google Scholar
Thurnam, J. 1869. On ancient British barrows (Part I. Long barrows). Archaeologia 42, 161–244CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tooley, M.J. 1978. The history of Hartlepool Bay. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 7, 71–5CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Treherne, P. 1995. The warrior's beauty: the masculine body and self-identity in Bronze-Age Europe. Journal of European Archaeology 3, 105–44CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tresset, A. 2000. Early husbandry in Atlantic areas. Animal introductions, diffusions of techniques and native acculturation at the north-western fringe of Europe. In Henderson, J.C. (ed.), The Prehistory and Early History of Atlantic Europe, 17–32. Oxford: British Archaeological Report S861Google Scholar
Turner, A., Gonzalez, S. & Ohman, J.C. 2002. Prehistoric human and ungulate remains from Preston Docks, Lancashire, UK: problems of river finds. Journal of Archaeological Science 29, 423–33CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Turney-High, H.H. 1991. Primitive War: its practice and concepts: University of South Carolina Press (3rd edn)Google Scholar
Vandkilde, H. 2003. Commemorative tales: archaeological responses to modern myth, politics and war. World Archaeology 35, 126–44CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vend, H. 1984. War and warfare in archaeology. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 3, 116–32Google Scholar
Verano, J.W. 1997. La trepanatión como tratamiento terapeútico en el antiguo Peru. In Rodríguez, R. Ramos & Peña, E. Reyes (eds), Estudios de Antropología Biológica Volumen VIII, 65–81. Mexico: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México/Instituto de Investigaciones AntropológicasGoogle Scholar
Verano, J.W. 2003. Trepanation in prehistoric South America: geographic and temporal trends over 2,000 years. In Arnott, et al. (eds) 2003, 223–36Google Scholar
Villa, P. & Mahieu, E. 1991. Breakage patterns of human long bones. Journal of Human Evolution 21, 27–48CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vutiropulos, N. 1991. The sling in the Aegean Bronze Age. Antiquity 65, 279–86CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wahl, J. & König, H. 1987. Anthropologisch-Traumologische Untersuchung der Menschlichen Skelettreste aus dem Bandkeramischen Massengrab bei Talheim, Kreis Heilbronn. Fundberichte was Baden-Wurtemberg 12, 65–193Google Scholar
Wakely, J. 1997. Identification and analysis of violent and non-violent head injuries in osteo-archaeological material. In Carman, J. (ed.), Material Harm: archaeological studies of war and violence, 24–46. Glasgow: Cruithne PressGoogle Scholar
Walker, P.L. 1989. Cranial injuries as evidence of violence in prehistoric southern California. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 80, 313–23CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Walker, P.L. 1997. Wife beating, boxing, and broken noses: skeletal evidence for the cultural patterning of violence. In Martin, & Frayer, (eds) 1997, 145–80Google Scholar
Ward, J. 1915. St. Nicholas chambered tumulus, Glamorgan. Archaeologia Cambrensis 15, 253–320Google Scholar
Webb, S. 1995. Palaeopathology of Aboriginal Australians. Cambridge: University PressCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Webber, M. & Ganiaris, H. 2004. The Chelsea club: a Neolithic wooden artefact from the River Thames in London. In Cotton, J. & Field, D. (eds), Towards a New Stone Age: Aspects of the Neolithic in South-East England, 124–7. York: Council for British Archaeology Research Report 137Google Scholar
Wendorf, F. 1968. Site 117: a Nubian Final Paleolithic graveyard near Jebel Sahaba, Sudan. In Wendorf, F. (ed.), The Prehistory of Nubia, 954–95. Dallas: Southern Methodist University PressGoogle Scholar
Whitehead, N.L. 2002. Dark Shamans. Kanaimà and the Poetics of Violent Death. London: Duke University PressGoogle Scholar
Whittle, A. 1977. Earlier Neolithic enclosures in north-west Europe. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 43, 329–48CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whittle, A. 1994. Excavations at Millbarrow Neolithic chambered tomb, Winterbourne Monkton, north Wiltshire. Wiltshire Archaeology and Natural History Magazine 87, 1–53Google Scholar
Whittle, A. 1996. Europe in the Neolithic: the creation of new worlds. Cambridge: University PressGoogle Scholar
Whittle, A. 1997. Moving on and moving around: Neolithic settlement mobility. In Topping, P. (ed.), Neolithic Landscapes, 15–22. Oxford: OxbowGoogle Scholar
Whittle, A. 2003. The Archaeology of People: dimensions of Neolithic life. London: RoutledgeCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whittle, A. & Pollard, J. 1998. Windmill Hill causewayed enclosure: the harmony of symbols. In Edmonds, M. & Richards, C. (eds), Understanding the Neolithic of North-Western Europe, 231–47. Glasgow: Cruithne PressGoogle Scholar
Whittle, A. & Wysocki, M. 1998. Parc le Breos Cwm transepted long cairn, Gower, West Glamorgan: date, contents and context. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 64, 139–82CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Willey, P. 1990. Prehistoric warfare on the Great Plains. Skeletal Analysis of the Crow Creek Massacre Victims. New York: Garland PublishingGoogle Scholar
Wilkinson, R.G. & Wagenen, K.M. van. 1993. Violence against women: prehistoric skeletal evidence from Michigan. Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology 18, 190–216Google Scholar
Whitley, J. 2002. Too many ancestors. Antiquity 76, 119–26CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wysocki, M. n.d. Human skeletal remains from earlier Neolithic mortuary monuments in southern Britain. Unpublished report on file with authorGoogle Scholar
Wysocki, M. & Whittle, A. 2000. Diversity, lifestyles and rites: new biological and archaeological evidence from British earlier Neolithic mortuary assemblages. Antiquity 74, 591–601CrossRefGoogle Scholar