Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-22dnz Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-25T23:17:46.227Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The use of Firewood in Ancient Maya Funerary Rituals: A Case Study from Rio Bec (Campeche, Mexico)

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

Lydie Dussol ,
Michelle Elliott ,
Grégory Pereira  and
Dominique Michelet
Lydie Dussol
Affiliation:
UMR 8096 Archéologie des Amériques, University of Paris, 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne, Nanterre, F-92023ydie.dussol@mae.u-parisl0.frlydie.dussol@mae.u-parisl0.fr, gregory.pereira@mae.u-parislO.fr, dominique.michelet@mae.u-parislO.fr
Michelle Elliott
Affiliation:
UMR 8096 Archéologie des Amériques, University of Paris, 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne, Nanterre, F-92023ydie.dussol@mae.u-parisl0.frlydie.dussol@mae.u-parisl0.fr, gregory.pereira@mae.u-parislO.fr, dominique.michelet@mae.u-parislO.fr
Grégory Pereira
Affiliation:
UMR 8096 Archéologie des Amériques, University of Paris, 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne, Nanterre, F-92023ydie.dussol@mae.u-parisl0.frlydie.dussol@mae.u-parisl0.fr, gregory.pereira@mae.u-parislO.fr, dominique.michelet@mae.u-parislO.fr
Dominique Michelet
Affiliation:
UMR 7041 Archéologie des Sciences de l'Antiquité, University of Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne, Nanterre, F-92023michelle.elliott@mae.u-parislO.fr
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

In this paper, we examine wood charcoal assemblages that were recovered from ash layers in Terminal Classic (A.D. 800–950) burials at the Maya site of Rio Bee to understand the use of fuel wood in funerary rites. Compared to charcoal deposits from domestic and non-funerary contexts, the spectrum of wood taxa used in the burial deposits is unique, which suggests specific fire-related practices. Members of the Sapotaceae family and Cordiasp. dominated all contexts and were clearly primary fuels. In contrast, the use of pine (Pinus sp.), which does not grow locally today, was limited to ritual practices. In addition, it seems that a deliberate effort was made to maximize the taxonomic richness of the fuel wood used in burials. Funerary charcoal deposits appear to have been carefully and intentionally “composed” for burning during funerary rites. We propose that this practice materialized the relationship between fire, ash, and the cycles of life and death, which are often symbolized by plant life cycles in the worldview of ancient Maya societies. This study also emphasizes the contribution of anthracological (wood charcoal) analysis to the reconstruction of human behavior and the importance of systematic paleoethnobotanical sampling in funerary contexts.

Resumen

Resumen

En este artículo se presentan los resultados del estudio de los carbones procedentes de depόsitos de cenizas encontrados en contextos funerarios del Clásico Terminal (a.D. 800-950) en el sitio maya de Río Bec. Dichos vestigios son indicadores relevantes del uso de combustibles vegetates en los rituales funerarios. La comparacion de estos materiales con los que proceden de contextos domesticos y rituales no-funerarios muestra que los taxones usados varian notablemente en funciόn del tipo de actividades con las cuales se relacionan. Las leñas pertenecientes a la Familia Sapotaceae y a Cordiasp. fueron los principales combustibles, ya que predominan en todos los contextos. En cambio, el pino (Pinus sp.), que hoy no existe localmente, parece haber sido reservado a las prdcticas rituales. Por otro lado, se observa una notable variedad taxonόmica en los depόsitos funerarios, la cual parece indicar una verdadera intencionalidad. Dichos depόsitos fueron probablemente “compuestos” con cuidado y estuvieron expresamente destinados a ser quemados durante las ceremonias fúnebres. Se propone que este acto pudo haber simbolizado la relaciόn entre elfuego, las cenizas y los ciclos de vida y muerte expresados a traves de la metáfora del ciclo vegetal en uso entre los antiguos mayas. Este estudio hace hincapie en el potencial de los materiales antracologicos para la reconstrucciόn de los comportamientos humanos y demuestra la necesidad de tomar muestras arqueobotdnicas sistemdticas en contextos funerarios.

Type
Articles
Information
Latin American Antiquity , Volume 27 , Issue 1 , March 2016 , pp. 51 - 73
Copyright
Copyright © Society for American Archaeology 2016

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References Cited

Adriano-Morán, Carmen C., and de Tapia, Emily McClung 2008 Trees and Shrubs: The Use of Wood in Prehispanic Teotihuacan. Journal of Archaeological Science 35:2927–2936.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aguirre de Riojas, Regina, and De Poll, Elfriede 2007 Trees in the Life of the Maya World. Botanical Research Institute of Texas Press, Fort Worth, Texas.Google Scholar
Alcorn, Janis B. 1984 Huastec Mayan Ethnobotany. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Arnauld, Charlotte, Michelet, Dominique, and Nondédéo, Philippe 2013 Living Together in Rí’o Bec Houses: Co-residence, Rank and Alliance. Ancient Mesoamerica 24(2):469–493.Google Scholar
Asouti, Eleni, and Austin, Phil 2005 Reconstructing Woodland Vegetation and Its Exploitation by Past Societies, Based on the Analysis and Interpretation of Archaeological Wood Charcoal Macro-Remains. Environmental Archaeology 10(1): 1–18.Google Scholar
Atran, Scott, and Ucan Ek’, Edilberto 1999 Classification of Useful Plants by the Northern Petén Maya (Itzaj). In Reconstructing Ancient Maya Diet, edited by Christine D. White, pp. 19–59. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Barrera-Marín, Alfredo, Vázquez, Alfredo Barrera, and López Franco, Rosa María 1976 Nomenclatura etnobotánica maya: una interpretación taxonómica. Centro regional del Sureste, INAH, México.Google Scholar
Barret and Golfari 1962 Pinus caribaea var. hondurensis (Sénécl.) W.H.G. Caribbean Forester 23(2):65, 211–213.Google Scholar
Barrientos, Isaac 2013 Operación II.5: los contextos funerarios y los procesos de aglomeración. In Proyecto Petén-Norte Naachtun 2010–2014: informe de la cuarta temporada de campo 2013, edited by Philippe Nondédéo, Carlos Morales-Aguilar, Julien Sion, Dominique Michelet and Chloé Andrieu, pp. 297–313. CNRS-CEMCA, Ciudad de Guatemala.Google Scholar
Bayard, Donn T. 1977 A Novel Pottery-Manufacturing Technique in Western Loei Province, Thailand. Journal of the Siam Society 65(1):239–246.Google Scholar
Beauclair, Mariana, Scheel-Ybert, Rita, Bianchini, Gina Faraco, and Buarque, Angela 2009 Fire and Ritual: Bark Hearths in South-American Tupiguarani Mortuary Rites. Journal of Archaeological Science 36:1409–1415.Google Scholar
Berg, Cornelis C., Welle, Ben J.H., Détienne, Pierre, and Bonsen, K. 1992 Flora of the Guianas. Series A, Phanerogams. Fascicle II. Koeltz Scientific Books, Koenigstein.Google Scholar
Berlin, Brent, Breedlove, Dennis E., and Raven, Peter H. 1974 Principles of Tzeltal Plant Classification: An Introduction to the Botanical Ethnography of a Mayan-Speaking People of Highland Chiapas. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Bianchini, Gina, and Scheel-Ybert, Rita 2012 Plants in a Funerary Context at the Jabuticabeira-II Shellmound (Santa Catarina, Brazil)—Feasting or Ritual Offerings? In Wood and Charcoal: Evidence for Human and Natural History (SAGVTVM Extra, n°13), edited by Ernestina Badal, Yolanda Carrión, Miguel Macías, and María Ntinou, pp. 253–258. Departament de Prehistória i Arqueologia, Universitat de Valencia, Valencia, Spain.Google Scholar
Bozarth, Steven R., and Guderjan, Thomas H. 2004 Biosilicate Analysis of Residue in Maya Dedicatory Cache Vessels from Blue Creek, Belize. Journal of Archaeological Science 31(2):205–215.Google Scholar
Breedlove, Dennis E., and Laughlin, Robert M. 2000 The Flowering of Man: A Tzotzil Botany of Zinacatan. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Campbell, David G., Ford, Anabel, Lowell, Karen S., Walker, Jay, Lake, Jeffrey K., Ocampo-Raeder, Constanza, Townesmith, Andrew, and Balick, Michael 2006 The Feral Forest of the Eastern Petén. In Time and Complexity in Historical Ecology: Studies in the Neotropical Lowlands, edited by William Balée and Clark L. Erickson, pp. 21–56. Columbia University Press, New York.Google Scholar
Chabal, Lucie 1994 Apports récents de l’anthracologie à la connaissance des paysages passés: performances et limites. Histoire and Mesure 9(3–4):317–338.Google Scholar
Chabal, Lucie, Fabre, Laurent, Terral, Jean-Frédéric, and Théry-Parisot, Isabelle 1999 L’anthracologie. In La Botanique, edited by Alain Ferdière, pp. 43–104. Errance, Paris.Google Scholar
Chase, Diane Z., and Chase, Arlen F. 2003 Secular, sagrado y “revisitado”: la profanación, alteración y reconsagración de los antiguos entierros mayas. In Antropología de la Eternidad: la Muerte en la Cultura Maya, edited by Andrés Cuidad Ruiz, Mario Humberto Ruz Sola, and María Josefa Iglesias Ponce de León, pp.255–278. SEEM, Madrid/UNAM, Mexico.Google Scholar
Clark, Lynn G. 1990 Diversity and Biogeography of Neotropical Bamboos (Poaceae: Bambusoideae). Acta Botanica Brasilica 4(1):125–132.Google Scholar
Cowan, Richard S., Jan, C. Lindeman, Ben, J. H. Welle, and Détienne, Pierre 1989 Flora of the Guianas. Series A, Phanerogams. Fascicle 7: 88. Caesalpiniaceae including Wood and Timber. Koeltz Scientific Books, Koenigstein.Google Scholar
Cutright, Robyn 2011 Food for the Dead, Cuisine for the Living: Mortuary Food Offerings from the Jequetepeque Valley, Peru. In From State to Empire in the Prehistoric Jequetepeque Valley, Peru, edited by Colleen M. Zori and Ilana Johnson, pp. 83–92. BAR International Series 2310. Archaeopress, Oxford.Google Scholar
Davidse, Gerrit, Sánchez, Mario Sousa, Knapp, Sandra, and Cabrera, Fernando Chiang 2015 Cycadaceae a Connaraceae 2(1). In Flora Mesoamericana, edited by Gerrit Davidse, Mario Sousa Sánchez, and Arthur O. Chater, ined. UNAM, México.Google Scholar
Davidse, Gerrit, Sánchez, Mario Sousa, and Chater, Arthur O. 1994 Alismataceae a Cyperaceae. In Flora Mesoamericana, edited by Gerrit Davidse, Mario Sousa Sánchez, and Arthur O. Chater, pp. 1–543. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México.Google Scholar
Dehouve, Danièle 2001 El fuego nuevo: Interpretación de una «ofrenda contada» tlapaneca, Guerrero, México. Journal de la Société des Américanistes 87:89–112.Google Scholar
Deforce, Koen, and Haneca, Kristof 2012 Ashes to Ashes. Fuelwood Selection in Roman Cremation Rituals in Northern Gaul. Journal of Archaeological Science 39:1338–1348.Google Scholar
Détienne, Pierre, and Jacquet, Paulette 1983 Atlas d’identification des bois de l’Amazone et des régions voisines. Centre Technique Forestier Tropical, Nogent-sur-Marne, France.Google Scholar
Durán, Fray Diego 1995 [1566] Historia de las Indias de la Nueva España e Islas de tierra firme. 2 vols. Cien de México, CONACULTA, México.Google Scholar
Eberl, Markus 2005 Muerte, entierro y ascensión, Ritos funerarios entre los antiguos mayas. UADY, Mérida.Google Scholar
Fabre, Laurent, Pernaud, Jean-Marie, and Thiébault, Stéphanie 2003 Feu sacré? Revue archéologique de Picardie. Special Issue 21:139–146.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Figueiral, Isabelle, Fabre, Laurent, and Bel, Valérie 2010 Considerations on the Nature and Origin of Wood-Fuel from Gallo-Roman Cremations, in the Languedoc Region (Southern France). Quaternaire 21(3):325–331.Google Scholar
Filloy Nadal, Laura 2014 Costume et insignes d’un gouvernant maya. K’inich Janaab’ Pakal de Palenque. BAR International Series 2590. Archaeopress, Oxford.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fitzsimmons, James L. 2009 Death and the Classic Maya Kings. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Flores, José S., and Kantún-Balam, Juan G. 1997 Importance of Plants in the Ch’a Chaak Maya Ritual in the Peninsula of Yucatan. Journal of Ethnobiology 17:97–108.Google Scholar
Gumerman, Georges IV 1997 Burial Offerings in Moche Burials at Pacatnamu. In The Pacatnamu Paper, Vol.2 The Moche Occupation, edited by Christopher B. Donnan and Guillermo A. Cock, pp. 243–248. University of California, Los Angeles.Google Scholar
Hall, Grant D., Tarka, Stanley M. Jr., Jeffrey Hurst, W., Stuart, David, and Adams, Richard E.W. 1990 Cacao Residues in Ancient Maya Vessels from Rio Azul, Guatemala. American Antiquity 55(1): 138–143.Google Scholar
de León, Iglesias Ponce, Josefa, María 2003 Contenedores de cuerpos, cenizas y almas: el uso de urnas funerarias en la cultura Maya. In Antropología de la eternidad: la muerte en la cultura maya, edited by Andrés Cuidad Ruiz, Mario Humberto Ruz Sola, and María Josefa Iglesias Ponce de León, pp. 209–254. SEEM, Madrid/UNAM, Mexico.Google Scholar
Jacquiot, Clément 1955 Atlas d’anatomie des bois des conifères. Centre technique du bois, Paris.Google Scholar
Jansen, Doris, Mischka, Doris, and Nelle, Oliver 2013 Wood Usage and its Influence on the Environment from the Neolithic until the Iron Age: A Case Study of the Graves at Flintbek (Schleswig–Holstein, Northern Germany). Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 22:335–349.Google Scholar
Jansen-Jacob, Marion J., Barneby, Rupert C., Grimes, James W., and Poncy, Odile 2011 Flora of the Guianas. Series A, Phanerogams. Fascicle 28. Royal Botanical Gardens, Richmond.Google Scholar
Landa, Fray Diego de 1966 [1566] Relación de las Cosas de Yucatán, edited by Angel Garibay K., Porrúa, México.Google Scholar
Lee Smart, Tristine, and Hoffman, Ellen S. 1988 Environmental Interpretation of Archaeological Charcoal. In Current Paleoethnobotany: Analytical Methods and Cultural Interpretations of Archaeological Plant Remains, edited by Christine A. Hastorf and Virginia S. Popper, pp. 167–205. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.Google Scholar
Lemonnier, Éva, and Vannière, Boris 2013 Agrarian Features, Farmsteads and Homesteads in the Río Bee Nuclear Zone (Mexico). Ancient Mesoamerica 24(2):397–413.Google Scholar
Lennstrom, Heidi A., and Hastorf, Christine A. 1995 Interpretation in Context: Sampling and Analysis in Paleoethnobotany. American Antiquity 60(4):701–721.Google Scholar
Lentz, David L. 1991 Maya Diets of the Rich and Poor: Paleoethnobotanical Evidence from Copán. Latin American Antiquity 2(3):269–287.Google Scholar
Lentz, David L. 1999 Plant Resources of the Ancient Maya: The Paleoethnobotanical Evidence. In Reconstructing Ancient Maya Diet, edited by Christine D. White, pp. 7–18. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Lentz, David L., and Hockaday, Brian 2009 Tikal Timbers and Temples: Ancient Maya Agroforestry and the End of Time. Journal of Archaeological Science 36(1):1342–1353.Google Scholar
Lentz, David L., Yaeger, Jason, Robin, Cynthia, and Ashmore, Wendy 2005 Pine, Prestige and Politics of the Late Classic Maya at Xunantunich, Belize. Antiquity 79(305):573–585.Google Scholar
Liese, Walter 1998 The Anatomy of the Bamboo Culms. The Clarendon Press, Oxford.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Longacre, William A., Skibo, James M., and Stark, Miriam T. 1991 Ethnoarchaeology at the Top of the World: New Ceramic Studies among the Kalinga of Luzon. Expedition 33(1):4–15.Google Scholar
López Luján, Leonardo 1998 Recreating the Cosmos. Seventeen Aztec Dedication Caches. In The Sowing and the Dawning: Termination, Dedication and Transformation in the Archaeological and Ethnographic Record of Mesoamerica, edited by Shirley B. Mock, pp. 177–187. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Lundell, Cyrus L. 1937 The Vegetation of Petén: With an Appendix: Studies of Mexican and Central American Plants. Vol. I. Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Lundell, Cyrus L. 1938 Plants Probably Utilized by the Old Empire Maya of Petén and Adjacent Lowlands. Papers of the Michigan Academy of Science 24:37–56. University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
McAnany, Patricia A. 1995 Living with the Ancestors: Kinship and Kingship in Ancient Maya Society. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
McGee, Jon R. 1990 Life, Ritual and Religion among the Lacandon Maya. Wadsworth Publications, Belmont.Google Scholar
McNeil, Cameron L. 2006 Maya Interactions with the Natural World: Landscape Transformation and Ritual Plant Use at Copan, Honduras. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, City University of New York.Google Scholar
McNeil, Cameron L. 2009 Death and Chocolate: the Significance of Cacao Offerings in Ancient Maya Tombs and Caches at Copan, Honduras. In Pre-Columbian Foodways: Interdisciplinary Approaches to Food, Culture and Markets in Ancient Mesoamerica, edited by John Staller and Michael Carrasco, pp. 293–314. Springer, New York. Marston, JohnM.Google Scholar
McNeil, Cameron L. 2009 Modeling Wood Acquisition Strategies from Archaeological Charcoal Remains. Journal of Archaeological Science 36:2192–2200.Google Scholar
Martin, Simon 2006 Cacao in Ancient Maya Religion. First Fruits from the Maize Tree and other Tales from the Underworld. In Chocolate in Mesoamerica: A Cultural History of Cacao, edited by Cameron McNeil, pp. 154–183. University Press of Florida, Gainesville.Google Scholar
Martínez, Esteban, and Galindo-Leal, Carlos 2002 La vegetación de Calakmul, Campeche, Mexico: clasificación, descriptión y distributión. Boletín de la Sociedad Botánica de México 71:7–32.Google Scholar
Metcalfe, Charles R., and Chalk, Laurence 1957 Anatomy of the Dicotyledons. Leaves, Stem and Wood in Relation to Taxonomy with Notes on Economic Uses. 2 vols. Clarendon Press, Oxford.Google Scholar
Metzger, Duane, and Williams, Gerald 1966 Some Procedures and Results in the Study of Native Categories: Tzeltal “Firewood.” American Anthropologist 68:389–407.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Michelet, Dominique, Nondédéo, Philippe, Pereira, Grégory, Patrois, Julie, Arnauld, Charlotte, and Lacadena, Alfonso 2010 Rituales en una sociedad sin reyes: el caso de Río Bec y del Edificio A (5N2) en particular. In El ritual en el mundo maya: de lo privado a lo público, edited by Andrés Ciudad Ruiz, María Josefa Iglesias Ponce de Léon, and Miguel Sorroche Cuerva, pp. 153–180. SEEM, Madrid.Google Scholar
Michelet, Dominique, Nondédéo, Philippe, Patrois, Julie, Gillot, Céline, and Emily, González G. 2013 Structure 5N2 (”Groupe A”): A Río Bec Paradigmatic Palace? Ancient Mesoamerica 24(2):415–431.Google Scholar
Morehart, Christopher T. 2005 Plants and Cave in Ancient Maya Society. In Reconstructing Maya Ritual and Cosmology in the Cave Context, edited by Keith M. Prufer and James Brady, pp. 167–185. University of Colorado Press, Boulder.Google Scholar
Morehart, Christopher T. 2011 Food, Fire and Fragrance. Paleoethnobotanical Perspectives on Classic Maya Cave Rituals. BAR International Series 2186. Archaeopress, Oxford.Google Scholar
Morehart, Christopher T., and Butler, Noah 2010 Ritual Exchange and the Fourth Obligation: Ancient Maya Food Offering and the Flexible Materiality of Ritual. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 16:588–608.Google Scholar
Morehart, Christopher T., Lentz, David L., and Prufer, Keith M. 2005 Wood of the Gods: The Ritual Use of Pine by the Ancient Lowland Maya. Latin American Antiquity 16(3):55–274.Google Scholar
Morehart, Christopher T., and Morell-Hart, Shanti 2015 Beyond the Ecofact: Toward a Social Paleoethnobotany in Mesoamerica. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 22:483–511.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morell-Hart, Shanti 2011 Paradigms and Syntagms of Ethnobotanical Practice in Pre-Hispanic Northwestern Honduras. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Moskal-del Hoyo, Magdalena 2012 The Use of Wood in Funerary Pyres: Random Gathering or Special Selection of Species? Case Study of Three Necropolises from Poland. Journal of Archaeological Science 39:3386–3395.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nondédéo, Philippe, and Patrois, Julie 2007 Iconografía del poder en la región Río Bec: representaciones y primeras interpretaciones. In El patrimonio arqueológico maya en Campeche: Novedades, afectaciones, soluciones, edited by Ernesto Vargas and Antonio Benavides, pp. 159–205. Cuadernos del Centro de Estudios Mayas 35, UNAM, México.Google Scholar
Nondédéo, Philippe, Arnauld, Charlotte, and Michelet, Dominique 2013 Río Bec Settlement Patterns and Local Sociopolitical Organization. Ancient Mesoamerica 24(2):373–396.Google Scholar
Pearsall, Deborah M. 1988 Interpreting the Meaning of Macroremain Abundance: The Impact of Source and Context. In Current Paleoethnobotany: Analytical Methods and Cultural Interpretations of Archaeological Plant Remains, edited by Christine A. Hastorf and Virginia S. Popper, pp. 97–18. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.Google Scholar
Pennington, Terrence D., and Sarukhán, José 2005 Arboles tropicales de México: Manual para la identificación de las principales especies. UNAM Fondo de Cultura Económica, Mexico.Google Scholar
Pereira, Grégory 2013 Ashes, Dirt and Rock: Burial Practices at Río Bec. Ancient Mesoamerica 24(2):449–468.Google Scholar
Perry, Jesse P. 1991 The Pines of Mexico and Central America. Timber Press, Portland.Google Scholar
Powis, Terry G., Valdez, Fred Jr., Hester, Thomas R., Jeffrey Hurst, W., and Tarka, Stanley M. Jr. 2002 Spouted Vessels and Cacao Use among the Preclassic Maya. Latin American Antiquity 13(1):5–106.Google Scholar
Pudzisz, Renata, Jones, Tegan, Morehart, Christopher, and Lentz, David 2004 The Use of Pine by the Ancient Maya of Tikal. Chicago Botanic Garden. Electronic document, http://www.chicagobotanic.Org/downloads/reu/PUDZISZ.PDF, accessed January 23,2015.Google Scholar
Robertson, Merle Greene 1983 The Sculpture of Palenque. The Temple of the Inscriptions, Vol. 1. Princeton University Press, Princeton.Google Scholar
Roys, Ralph 1931 The Ethno-Botany of the Maya. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.Google Scholar
Rue, David, Freter, Ann Corinne, and Ballinger, Diane 1989 The Caverns of Copan Revisited: Preclassic Sites in the Sesemil River Valley, Copan, Honduras. Journal of Field Archaeology 16:395–404.Google Scholar
Ruz Lhuillier, Alberto 1973 El Templo de las Inscripciones, Palenque. Colección científica n° 7, INAH, México.Google Scholar
Scheel-Ybert, Rita, Beauclair, Mariana, and Buarque, Angela 2014 The Forest People: Landscape and Firewood Use in the Araruama Region, Southeastern Brazil, during the Late Holocene. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 23:97–111.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schele, Linda, and Freidel, David 1990 A Forest of Kings. The Untold Story of the Ancient Maya. Morrow, New York.Google Scholar
Schlesinger, Victoria 2001 Animals and Plants of the Ancient Maya, a Guide. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Spellerberg, Ian F., and Fedor, Peter J. 2003 A Tribute to Claude Shannon (1916–2001) and a Plea for More Rigorous Use of Species Richness, Species Diversity and the “Shannon–Wiener” Index. Global Ecology and Biogeography 12:177–179.Google Scholar
Standley, Paul C., and Steyermark, Julian A. 1946 Flora of Guatemala. Fieldiana: Botany Vol.24, Pt. I-V. Museum of Natural History, Chicago.Google Scholar
Taladoire, Eric, Dzul, Sara, Nondédéo, Philippe, and Forné, Mélanie 2013 Chronology of the Río Bec Settlement and Architecture. Ancient Mesoamerica 24(2):363–372.Google Scholar
Taube, Karl 2000 The Turquoise Hearth: Fire, Self-Sacrifice, and the Central Mexican Cult of War. In Mesoamerica’s Classic Heritage: From Teotihuacan to the Aztec, edited by David Carrasco, Lindsay Jones, and Scott Sessions, pp. 269–340. University Press of Colorado, Boulder.Google Scholar
Thompson, G. B. 1994 Wood Charcoals from Tropical Sites: A Contribution to Methodology and Interpretation. In Tropical Archaeobotany, Applications and New Developments, edited by Jon G. Hather, pp. 9–31. Routledge, London.Google Scholar
Tobias, María Dolores 2011 Ritual Change at the End of the Maya Classic Period: A Study of Incense Burners from the Southern Lowlands. BAR International Series 2258. Archaeopress, Oxford.Google Scholar
Vogt, Evon Z. 1969 Zinacantan: A Maya Community in the Highlands of Chiapas. The Belknap Press of Harvard University, Cambridge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vogt, Evon Z. 1976 Tortillas for the Gods: A Symbolic Analysis of Zinacanteco Rituals. Harvard University Press, London.Google Scholar
Von Winning, Hasso 1979 The “Binding of the Years” and the “New Fire” in Teotihuacán. Indiana 5:15–32.Google Scholar
Weiss-Krejci, Estella 2006 Identifying Ethnic Affiliation in the Maya Mortuary Record. In Maya Ethnicity. The Construction of Ethnic Identity from Preclassic to Modern Times: Proceedings of the 9th European Maya Conference, Bonn, December 10–12 2004, edited by Frauke Sachse, pp. 47–60. Saurwein, Markt Schwarben.Google Scholar
Wyatt, Andrew 2008 Pine as an Element of Household Refuse in the Fertilization of Ancient Maya Agricultural Fields. Journal of Ethnobiology 28(2):244–258.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zamora-Crescencio, Pedro, Gutiérrez-Báez, Celso, Folan, William J., Rosario Domínguez-Carrasco, María del, Villegas, Pascale, Cabrera-Mis, Geucilio, Castro-Angulo, Claudeth Marielli, and Carballo, Juan Carlos 2012 La vegetación leñosa del sitio arqueológico de Oxpemul, municipio de Calakmul, Campeche, México. Polibotánica 33:131–150.Google Scholar