We studied the use of European hare (Lepus europaeus) carcasses by avian scavengers in Argentinean Patagonia. A total of 16 hare carcasses were placed in locations that could be observed without disturbing birds feeding on them. Six avian species fed on these carcasses: chimango caracara (Milvago chimango), crested caracara (Polyborus plancus), black vulture (Coragyps atratus), grey eagle-buzzard (Geranoaetus melanoleucus), red-backed hawk (Buteo polyosoma) and cinereous harrier (Circus cinereus). Turkey vultures (Cathartes aura), although abundant, never fed on the hare carcasses. The Andean condor also did not feed on the carcasses. Mammals visited hare carcasses on only two occasions. Of the hare carcasses, 69% were fully consumed during the first day of exposure and 25% in two days. There was no difference in the time elapsed from the placement of the carcass and its detection by crested and chimango caracaras. There were similar time periods from detection to first arrival, and time elapsed from first arrival to the start of feeding at the carcass by crested and chimango caracaras. Hare body parts were consumed in different proportions by crested and chimango caracaras whereas black vultures consumed the whole carcass. Interspecific hierarchies at the carcass in a decreasing sequence of dominance were crested caracara > black vulture > chimango caracara, coinciding with that expected from a body mass perspective. The scavenging species that consume hare carcasses did not show a clear pattern denoting they were a highly interdependent assemblage in the way described for scavengers in Africa.

The diet of Leisler's bat Nyctalus leisleri was investigated by analysis of droppings collected from six mainly pastoral sites in Ireland, two sites in England (one mainly pastoral, one arable predominating) and three in Germany (in forest), and comprised mainly medium-sized and small insects caught in flight, many of which were probably from swarms. There was a major pastoral prey component, indicated mainly by Scathophaga stercoraria, Scarabaeoidea and associated Acari, at the Irish sites (estimated as 29–55%) and the English pastoral site (22%), but this was less significant elsewhere (1–12%). Insects with aquatic larvae (Ephemeroptera, Trichoptera, Chironomidae/Ceratopogonidae, Culicidae) often made up an important part of the diet (4–39%). Another distinct component, the Lepidoptera, Hemerobiidae, Chrysopidae and Ichneumonidae, which were all intercorrelated in the results, possibly indicates feeding near trees. This component was most important at the German (36–63%) and English arable (30%) locations, but of less significance at the English pastoral (11%) and Irish (2–19%, mean 6%) ones. The diets in Germany were otherwise diverse.

African clawed frogs (Xenopus laevis) in a South Wales pond ate a wide variety and size range of prey. Zoobenthos and zooplankton made the greatest contribution to diets, both numerically and by weight. Terrestrial invertebrates made up a small proportion of the diet numerically but a large proportion of the diet mass during the spring and summer. Nektonic prey were present throughout the year but made up a very small proportion of diet. Cannibalism was important when eggs and larvae were present in the pond. Electivity values were consistently positive for chironomids (larvae and pupae) and daphnids but were consistently negative for tubificids. In addition, electivity increased for larger sizes and pupae of Chironomus plumosus, but was low for the largest size class (> 12 mm). Electivity of other taxa showed an increase when densities of chironomids and daphnids were reduced. Mean sizes of daphnids and cyclopods were consistently larger in frog stomach contents than in the water column, indicating that predation on zooplankton by Xenopus laevis is size-selective.

In this study factors that influence the plasticity in growth and adult body mass in the naked mole-rat (Heterocephalus glaber) are explored. Growth functions (Gompertz transformation) revealed that naked mole-rat pups have the slowest mean maximum growth rate (0.207 g.day−1) of all the Bathyergidae. Growth functions varied significantly between litters and there was an inverse trend between asymptotic body mass and litter order. Similarly, the magnitude of the growth response following the death of the breeding male or older siblings was greater for older litter members. There was a significant correlation between body mass and age at all stages of the colony's history although this relationship weakened with time. It is suggested that dominance interactions between old and young mole-rats within the colony are important factors influencing the growth and reproductive potential of all colony members. Changes in body mass were linked to the behaviour of the individual within the colony providing a mechanism for the apparent match between large body size and colony defence and small body size and work frequency. Despite low genetic variation within colonies there is considerable variation in the size of colony members suggesting that plasticity in growth is the product of different ontogenetic histories of colony members that may serve as the basis for variation in size amongst adults.

The influence of ambient temperature on daily activity level was assessed for greater kudus observed in two study areas in South Africa. Active time proportion for adult females and subadults of both sexes was significantly negatively correlated with maximum daily temperature, but uninfluenced directly by cloud cover. However, maximum temperature differences between days accounted for only a quarter of the variability in active time. On most days the overall activity level and hence daily foraging time allocation were somewhat lower than the maximum levels observed for the prevailing temperature conditions. The upper limit to the distribution of active time was lower during the mild dry season than over the hot wet season, probably due to a seasonal change in pelage by kudus. Temperature influences were strongest during the early growing season, when food availability was low and conditions frequently hot. The active and foraging times of kudus during daylight hours appeared to be restricted below the target level only when maximum daily temperature exceeded 36 °C in the wet season, and 30 °C in the dry season. Only 15% of days exceeded these levels during the respective mid-seasonal periods, suggesting that foraging activity was effectively constrained by thermal tolerance on only about one day in seven. Optimal foraging models that assume thermal stress to be a consistent daily constraint on foraging time may be misleading.

Many small mammals inhabiting vegetation habitats where food resources are scattered have large home ranges with limited overlap. One way that they may effectively defend large territories is to establish dominance over the limited number of sites that provide good protection from predators, since displacement from these sites could have a very high cost to intruders. To examine this hypothesis we studied the fine-scale use of habitat and spatial dispersion of all adult male Mus spretus inhabiting a 1.1 ha grassland study site near Lisbon, Portugal, by radio telemetry, at the start of the breeding season. The location of each of the 10 males was mapped every hour, 24 h/day for up to seven days. Microhabitat characteristics were compared between a random sample of points in the study site and those where mice were found. Individual ranges did not overlap, despite the close proximity of their borders and the occupation of almost all suitable habitat, suggesting that individual dispersion was strongly influenced by the presence of neighbours; mean range size was 343 ± 95 m2. Residents covered less than one-third of their total range over 24 h, though neighbours did not intrude despite the apparent opportunities. Each male territory overlapped the territory of at least two females. Mice were neither nocturnal nor crepuscular, moving around mostly during the morning and evening. They avoided open woodland or pathways, preferring grassland sites with tall vegetation and sites where shrubs, bramble, or dead wood provided additional cover. Most fixes per male (70%) were located in one to four core areas, which represented only a tiny proportion of each range (6.9 ± 0.9%). Although exclusive defence of large complex ranges is likely to be impracticable, defence of core areas seems much more feasible. Our results thus support our hypothesis that mice may be able to maintain large exclusive ranges due to a combination of high predation pressure and a limited number of sites with sufficient ground and overhead cover. This will result in a very high risk to mice entering areas where competitors have priority of access to protected sites.

Net branchial sodium uptake, and net acid and ammonia excretion, together with gill ventilation volumes were measured in euryhaline European flounder Platichthys flesus, adapted to freshwater. External amiloride or acetazolamide (0.1 mmol l-1) caused significant reductions (P < 0.05) in sodium uptake and net acid excretion, while 0.05 mmol l-1 thiocyanate had no effect on any of the fluxes measured. Ethoxzolamide (0.1 mmol l-1) however, caused significant reductions in all fluxes measured and also caused a 32% reduction in the volume of water exhaled by the gills. In this study, it appears that sodium uptake and net acid excretion are indirectly linked, probably by a proton pump arrangement which is thought to be a mechanism for sodium uptake in trout gills.

In Britain, the water vole (Arvicola terrestris) has declined in numbers and distribution (Jefferies, Morris & Mulleneux, 1989; Strachan & Jefferies, 1993). This species now enjoys a higher profile than hitherto and many local surveys have been initiated, following published methods. To monitor the status of the population or the effectiveness of habitat restoration projects, a method for estimating numbers of water voles is often needed, preferably based on latrines (a characteristic field sign of this species). Unfortunately, the published literature includes two potentially misleading components. In view of the significance of population size in a declining species, and the heightened interest in this animal, we felt it would be helpful to publish clarification and corrections in the hope of forestalling erroneous reports and conclusions in future investigations.

Seasonal changes in the reproductive anatomy and histology of the male Cape fur seal Arctocephalus pusillus pusillus were examined. Studies were based on 99 specimens collected between Algoa Bay on the south-east coast of South Africa, and Cape Frio, Namibia, during 1974 to 1990. Reproductive organs are briefly described. The presence of sperm in the seminiferous and epididymal tubules indicates that males attain puberty between 3 and 4 years of age. Quantitative measurements of testis weight, testis volume, and the diameter of the seminiferous and epididymal tubules were analysed on a monthly basis and spermatogenesis documented. Although some males may remain in breeding condition until March, the absence of spermatozoa in the epididymis during February to June, when mean testis mass and mean tubule diameter reached a minimum, clearly showed reproductive quiescence following the rut. Four stages of spermatogenesis were observed: (1) inactive (February/March–June); (2) early spermatogenesis (July); (3) late spermatogenesis (July/August–December/January); and (4) epithelial regression (February–June). Individual variation between males, possibly differences in social status and body condition, may influence the duration of spermatogenesis, hence the overlap in duration between epithelial regression and inactivity. It appears that photoperiod may act as an obligatory proximate factor initiating spermatogenesis 3–4 months before the relatively short breeding season from November to December.

The highveld mole-rat Cryptomys hottentotus pretoriae occurs in the summer rainfall region of the highveld of South Africa. It lives in colonies of up to 10 individuals, in which reproduction is limited to one to two of the largest males and the largest female in the colony. Of three field captured colonies, the mean colony size was 10 ± 0 animals with a mean biomass of 900 ± 147 g. The study colony had a sex ratio of 1.5:1 in favour of males.

The social hierarchy of the highveld mole-rat is non-linear and has a value of 0.3 calculated from Landau's linearity index. Dominance was negatively correlated with capture order.

Histological examination of the gonads of reproductively active and sexually quiescent members of both sexes of two colonies provides further support of there being a single reproductive male and female responsible for procreation in the colony.

The non-reproductives of both sexes appear to be important in burrow maintenance activity and in foraging for geophytes upon which the mole-rats feed. The non-reproductive members of the colony cannot be subdivided into different worker groups based on body mass. The available evidence suggests that the highveld mole-rat is a transiently social species, at one extreme of a sociality continuum in the genus Cryptomys. The position of this subspecies in respect to the sociality continuum is discussed.

Branchial sodium uptake, and net proton equivalent and ammonia excretion, together with isolated filament potentials were measured in euryhaline European flounder Platichthys flesus, adapted to freshwater. External benzamil (0.05 mmol l-1), a specific inhibitor of sodium conductive channels, caused significant reductions (P < 0.05) in sodium uptake and a marked decline in net proton equivalent excretion. In contrast, 0.05 mmol l-1 external 5-(N,N-dimethyl)-amiloride, a specific inhibitor of the Na+/H+ antiport, had no effect on any of the fluxes measured. The effect of vanadate, an inhibitor of H+-ATPases, was examined at two concentrations, 0.1 and 0.5 mmol l-1, and both caused significant reductions (P < 0.05) in sodium uptake and net proton equivalent excretion. Mean resting isolated gill filament potentials in freshwater-adapted P. flesus were found to be −23.8 ± 1.1 mV (inside negative) and became less negative in the presence of amiloride, an inhibitor of sodium transport. Using microelectrodes it was possible to measure two potentials in the filament: an apical potential and a transepithelial potential. The transepithelial potential was similar to that measured in vivo, while the apical potential, may be generated by the pavement epithelial cells. In this study, it appears that sodium uptake and net proton equivalent excretion are not strictly coupled but are indirectly linked probably by a proton pump arrangement, which is thought to be a mechanism for sodium uptake in trout gills. A possible role of the apical potential is discussed.

Variation was studied at 13 electrophoretically detected allozyme loci for samples of six populations of the polytypic snail Neotricula aperta; this was the first time that topotypic material from southern Laos and material from Kampuchea had been so examined. In addition, samples of all three strains of N. aperta from North East Thailand were examined and the findings compared with those of Staub et al. (1990). The samples were taken from the Mekong and Mul rivers of the Lower Mekong Basin. A small sample was also included from a γ-strain population in the Xé-Bang-Fai (XBF) river of central Laos. The γ-strain population of southern Laos and of Kampuchea has been shown to act as an intermediate host for Schistosoma mekongi.

In contrast to the work of Staub et al. (1990) significant multilocus genetic differences (Nei's D, DN = 0.6–1.2) were detected between the three strains from Thailand and no cryptic taxon, that included both α- and γ-strains could be demonstrated. However, there was agreement with the 1990 report in that the β-strain was divisible into two new taxa, with a reduction in heterozygote deficiency, although the genetic distance was not marked (DN= 0.12). Significant genetic distances were found between γ-strain snails from the type locality and β- and γ-strain samples from North East Thailand (DN = 2.0 and 1.5, respectively). On the basis of genetic distance measures, the Β-strain is probably a sibling species of N. aperta and the γ-strain of North East Thailand may also be a separate species. The population at XBF appears to be N. aperta s.s. The public health implications of the findings are discussed, particularly in the context of Mekong river water resource development.

Popularity as a fur-bearing species led to the American mink Mustela vison being transported far beyond its native range in North America (Dunstone, 1993). In many places the species was bred in fur farms, from which there were inevitably escapes, and in some areas it was deliberately released in large numbers with the intention of establishing harvestable populations. Both routes led to the widespread establishment of feral populations of this versatile semi-aquatic mustelid. Invariably, close scrutiny of the impact of feral American mink on native fauna has led at least to concern, and increasingly to proof, that they are inimical to the conservation of native species. Evidence of the impact of the American mink on native species falls into two categories. First, American mink may reduce significantly, and locally exterminate, certain vertebrate prey (Macdonald et al., in press). Second, as versatile and seemingly aggressive competitors they may alter the competitive balance within the local guild of semi-aquatic predators, even ousting native mustelids.

This study examines the water economy and resistance to desiccation in a minute (5 mg snail mass; 3 mm shell height) litter-dwelling land snail Lauria cylindracea (Pupillidae). As expected from its small size and from its moist habitat, L. cylindracea exposed to normothermic desiccation lost water at the highest rate revealed so far in our studies of resistance to desiccation in some 30 Israeli species and populations of land snails—22.7% of the whole snail mass within 5 days. This high water loss was selectively contributed by the extra-pallial (free) compartment while soft body water content was closely maintained, without catabolism of body tissue as a source of metabolic water. Surprisingly, however, samples of L. cylindracea survived long periods (2–4 months) of aestivation when left undisturbed in the laboratory, sustaining a mass loss of 25–40%. This long-term aestivation revealed a different pattern of water compartmentalization, as the snails also lost water from the soft body tissue. Samples of these snails were rehydrated for 48 h and then exposed to an identical desiccation regime as the original, field-collected snails. Most of the water taken up during rehydration was lost within the first 24 h of desiccation, after which the rate of water loss dropped sharply. We conclude that short-term water regulatory responses to experimental desiccation differ from long-term responses to aestivation. We suggest that during long-term aestivation, a new set-point of water economy is established, in association with a metabolic depression, and that an extended period of contact with moisture is needed to change this set-point.

The impact of food competition from the red fox Vulpes vulpes on the breeding density of the goshawk Accipiter gentilis was studied in a 650 km2 area in southern Norway by investigating the density of goshawks and their grouse prey before, during, and after a period when the red fox population was low because of an epizootic of sarcoptic mange Sarcoptes scabiei. The number of goshawk pairs per 100 km2 was approximately nine/year in the 1950s, three/year in 1972–75 and in 1980–85, and four/year in 1988–91. In each of these periods, nesting territories of goshawks were regularly spaced. There was a positive correlation between the breeding density of goshawk and the population size of grouse. Both grouse numbers and goshawk breeding density increased at the same time that fox populations declined in the 1980s, while the re-establishment of the fox population in the 1990s was associated with decreases in grouse and goshawk numbers. During the partial absence of red foxes, there was a continuously high grouse population. It is concluded that the red fox may influence the goshawk breeding density negatively by limiting the numbers of grouse.

Life-history models suggest that ‘costs of reproduction’ can influence the evolution of sexual dimorphism, but empirical data on this effect are scarce. We tested the idea using ‘flying lizards’ (Asian agamids of the genus Draco), because the evolution of ‘flight’ (gliding) is likely to have increased the degree to which pregnancy affects maternal locomotor ability (and hence, we infer, has increased the ‘costs of reproduction’). As predicted, Draco display patterns of sexual dimorphism that are different from those seen in most other lizards. The ‘wings’ (gliding membranes) of female D. melanopogon are significantly larger than those of males of the same body size, a dimorphism that we attribute to natural selection on the ability to glide while encumbered with eggs. Comparisons with non-flying lizards suggest that the same selective pressure has also reversed pre-existing patterns of sexual dimorphism in body size and body proportions (relative head size, relative tail length). Measurements of wing-loading, centre of balance and gliding distances of preserved specimens support the hypothesis that a larger body, relatively larger head, and longer tail may improve a female's aerial mobility when she is gravid. Thus, selection for locomotor ability in egg-burdened females (reduction in ‘costs of reproduction’) may have been responsible for a reversal of sexually-selected traits in this lineage.

The Andean hog-nosed skunk Conepatus chinga inhabits South America from Bolivia in the north to as far south as Neuquén province in Argentina (Redford & Eisenberg, 1992). In spite of its wide distribution and its value as a furbearer in Argentina (Fujita & Calvo, 1982), little is known about Andean hog-nosed skunk ecology, including its foods. It seems to forage solitarily during the night in open savannas and in arid and shrubby areas (Cabrera & Yepes, 1960; Mares et al., 1996), capturing arthropods (mainly beetles and arachnids) and occasionally small mammals and preying on eggs and fledgling birds (Cabrera & Yepes, 1960; Redford & Eisenberg, 1992; Mares et al., 1996). Here we present the first quantitative study on the diet of this species, based on the analysis of faeces collected during the summer season in two localities in Argentinean Patagonia.

Yellow-bellied marmots Marmota flaviventris in the East River Valley of Colorado were live-trapped and individually marked annually from 1962 through 1993. These pooled data were used to produce a demography and life table for these years. Females had significantly better survivorship than males beyond the first-year age class, and the sex ratio became progressively female biased. The major mortality factors of predation and unsuccessful hibernation acted evenly on all age classes as shown by the constant rates of survivorship. The rate of senescence indicated that the probability of mortality did not increase with age. Females produced litters from ages 2 to 10 years. Mean litter size was 4.1 and did not differ among age classes. The female generation length of 4.49 years was 2.4 times the life expectancy and the median survivorship. The net reproductive rate (Ro) was 0.67, yet the population did not continually decline; adjustments to these data increased Ro to 0.85. Reproductive values (Vx) were approximately equal across the reproductive age classes. The polygynous mating system is both cause and effect of the demography. Marmot population size is affected by weather factors that influence reproduction and survival, by predation, and by movement into and out of the study area.

Phylogenetic relationships of 31 pomacanthid species representing all genera were investigated by horizontal starch gel electrophoresis. Nei's genetic distances (D) were calculated and dendrograms constructed from allozyme variation in 23 loci. The average D value was 0.03 between conspecific colour variants, 0.40 between congeneric subgenera, and 1.27 between confamilial genera. From the dendrograms the following were revealed: (1) the generic status of Apolemichthys arcuatus and Holacanthus venustus, as well as the generic and subgeneric status of Centropyge multifasciata were confirmed; (2) the subgeneric status of Xiphypops was confirmed; (3) Pygoplites diacanthus was found to be closely related to members of the subgenus Pomacanthus; (4) Pomacanthus zonipectus was found to be biochemically distinct from its con-subgeners; (5) the genera Pomacanthus and Holacanthus are more closely related than currently thought; (6) the Genicanthus species might warrant a subfamily of their own.

Species of carnivorans that eat bone are believed to break teeth more often than those eating mainly meat. Two predictions that arise from this hypothesis are that bats, which do not eat bone, will have a lower incidence of broken teeth than carnivorans and that smaller carnivorans, which often feed heavily on arthropods and other insects, will exhibit less tooth damage than larger carnivorans. We found no difference between bats and carnivorans in the proportion of skulls with broken or missing teeth in a sample including 10 species of carnivorans from ermines to bears, and 13 species of bats including some that eat insects, fruit, nectar and pollen, and blood. When the sample is expanded to include larger carnivorans studied by Van Valkenburgh (1988), there is a significant difference in the incidence of tooth breakage, indicating that the selection of species in the sample affects the results. Tooth breakage was strongly influenced by body size in carnivorans but not in bats. This evidence suggests that factors other than diet influence tooth breakage in mammals. We propose that lifespan, which increases with body size in carnivorans but not in bats, is a better predictor of tooth breakage than diet.