^{Page 613 note 1} McGowan, Pat and Johnson, Thomas H., ‘African Military Coups d'État and Underdevelopment: a quantitative historical analysis’, in The Journal of Modern African Studies (Cambridge), 22, 4, 12 1984, pp. 633–66,Google Scholar and ‘Sixty Coups in Thity Years—Further Evidence Regarding Africa Military Coups d'État’, in ibid. 24, 3, September 1986, pp. 539–46.

^{Page 614 note 1} For the best treatment of this theme, see Rodney, Walter, How Europe Underdeveloped Africa (Washington, D.C., 1981), pp. 149–54.Google Scholar

^{Page 614 note 2} See Griffin, Keith, ‘Underdevelopment in History’, in Wilber, Charles K. (ed.), The Political Economy of Development and Underdevelopment (New York, 1973).Google Scholar

^{Page 615 note 1} The leaders and dates of their rule are as follows: Nkrumah, Kwame, 1957–1966; Joseph Ankrah/Akwasi Afrifah, 1966–69; Kofi Busia, 1969–72; Ignatius Acheampong, 1972–78; Fred Akuffo, 1978–79; Jerry Rawlings, June–September 1979; Hilla Limann, 1979–81; Jerry Rawlings 31 December 1981 to present. The three civilian régimes were headed by Nkrumah, Busia, and Limann.Google Scholar

^{Page 615 note 2} See Rebuilding the National Economy (Accra, Government Printer, 1966).Google Scholar

^{Page 616 note 1} Aluko, Olajide, ‘Ghana's Foreign Policy’, in Aluko, (ed.), The Foreign Policies of African States (London, 1977).Google Scholar

^{Page 617 note 1} Ibid.

^{Page 619 note 1} P.N.D.C. Initial Proclamation; see Daily Graphic (Accra), 12 01 1982.Google Scholar

^{Page 619 note 2} Ibid.

^{Page 620 note 1} Ibid. 17 February 1982.

^{Page 620 note 2} Ibid. 30 July 1982.

^{Page 620 note 3} Rawlings in an interview with West Africa (London), 24–31 December 1984. The ‘two chains of command’ refers to the N.D.C. and its local, district, and regional structures, and to the governing P.N.D.C. and its district and regional structures —e.g. the N.D.C.'s District Committee Co-ordinator and the P.N.D.C.'s District Secretary.

^{Page 621 note 1} Indeed, the newly appointed Political Counsellor of the C.D.R.s, Lieutenant-Colonel J. Y. Assasie, made a public appeal to ‘all Ghanaians to put the past behind them’ and ‘participate through the CDRs in the revolutionary process’. Ghana News (Ghana Embassy, Washington, D.C.), 14, 7, 07 1985.Google Scholar

^{Page 622 note 1} Rawlings in interview with Novicki, Margaret, in Africa Report (New Brunswick), 29, 2, 03–04 1984.Google Scholar

^{Page 622 note 2} West Africa, 27 October 1986, p. 2255.

^{Page 623 note 1} Amnesty International Report, 1984 (London, 1984), pp. 48–53.Google Scholar

^{Page 623 note 2} Ibid. pp. 43–9.

^{Page 624 note 1} ‘Withdrawal of Two Missionaries’, in Standard (Accra), 19 05 1985.Google Scholar

^{Page 624 note 2} ‘Ghana: political ferment’, in West Africa, 25 May 1987, p. 999.

^{Page 625 note 1} People's Daily Graphic (Accra), 6 04 1987.Google Scholar

^{Page 625 note 2} E. A. Hazel, Executive Secretary of the N.C.D., ibid. 23 April 1987.

^{Page 625 note 3} Rawlings in interview, Africa Report, 31, 6, 11–12 1986, pp. 4–8.Google Scholar

^{Page 626 note 1} A.F.K. Apaloo had been Chief Justice since mid-1977, while I. K. Abban had been Chairman of the Special Tribunal appointed by the A.F.R.C. régime, and their nomination by Limann to the Supreme Court was rejected by Parliament. This decision was nullified by a judgement of the Appeal Court, and although the competence of the latter, as constituted, was challenged by a leading politician, this was dismissed by the Supreme Court in May 1981.

^{Page 626 note 2} Contrary to the constitutional provisions, the Limann Government had freed virtually all civilians who had been convicted by the A.F.R.C. courts, leaving mostly military officers in prison. See West Africa, 26 October 1981. The P.N.D.C. relented on this issue by allowing ‘A.F.R.C. convicts’ to appeal successfully against their sentences.

^{Page 627 note 1} West Africa, 15 November 1982.

^{Page 627 note 2} Interview with Kwamena Ahoi, Co-ordinator of C.O.V.I.T., ibid. 24–31 December 1984.

^{Page 628 note 1} ‘Checking Corruption in Ghana’, ibid. 5 April 1982.

^{Page 629 note 1} Keesing's Contemporary Archives (Harlow), XXIX, 12 1983, p. 32548.Google Scholar

^{Page 629 note 2} West Africa, 22 March 1982.

^{Page 631 note 1} Onyema Ogochukwu, ‘Ghana: the lost revolution’, ibid. 25 February 1985.

^{Page 631 note 2} ‘Ghana's Economic Progress’, ibid. 2 December 1985.

^{Page 632 note 1} Announcement by the Governor of the Bank of Ghana, J. S. Addo, in a lecture at the University of Ghana, reported in West Africa, 10 June 1985.

^{Page 632 note 2} See ‘Ghana: time for action’, in Mining Journal (London), 303, 7789, 30 11 1984.Google Scholar

^{Page 632 note 3} Africa Report, 30, 4, 07–08 1985, p. 40.Google Scholar

^{Page 632 note 4} ‘Ghana's Economic Progress’.

^{Page 633 note 1} Source: World Bank, cited in Financial Times (London), 20 05 1986.Google Scholar

^{Page 633 note 2} Africa Report, 31, 2, 03–04 1986, p. 41.Google Scholar

^{Page 634 note 1} Ibid. 30, 2, March–April 1985, p. 33.

^{Page 634 note 2} West Africa, 15 December 1986, p. 2615.

^{Page 634 note 3} Ibid. 18 May 1987, p. 958.

^{Page 634 note 4} See ‘Ghana's Exports Rise Sharply’, ibid. 18 November 1985.

^{Page 634 note 5} Bank of Ghana Bulletin (Accra), 11 1986.Google Scholar

^{Page 634 note 6} Standard Chartered Review (London), 11 1986.Google Scholar

^{Page 635 note 1} Cited in Financial Times, 20 May 1986.

^{Page 635 note 2} See the official announcement of the programme in West Africa, 6 October 1986, p. 2105.

^{Page 636 note 1} Ibid. 17 November 1986, p. 2431.

^{Page 637 note 1} It was widely believed that the Limann régime's decision was based largely on its objection to Libya's sympathies with the political views of Rawlings.

^{Page 637 note 2} See West Africa, 2 December 1985, for the statement by Nigeria's External Affairs Minister when visiting Accra in November 1985. Busia had expelled thousands of Nigerians under Ghana's Aliens Compliance Order in 1970.

^{Page 638 note 1} See West Africa, 19 December 1985.

^{Page 638 note 2} See ‘Changing Course: angry new leaders in Africa’, in The Wall Street Journal (New York), 18 07 1985.Google Scholar

^{Page 638 note 3} West Africa, 14 October 1985. These elaborate bilateral security exercises did not prevent Sankara being overthrown and killed by his chief confidant, Blaise Compaoré, on 15 October 1987. For details of this coup d'état, see The Times (London), 17 10 1987, and West Africa, 26 October 1987, p. 2133. It is doubtful if future relations between Ghana and Burkina Faso will be as close as they were previously.Google Scholar

^{Page 639 note 1} Africa Report, 30, 6, 11–12 1985, p. 37.Google Scholar

^{Page 639 note 2} See Stockwell, John, In Search of Enemies: a CIA story (New York, 1978), pp. 160 and 201n; and also ‘Ghana's Foreign Policy’, in Aluko (ed.), op.cit.Google Scholar

^{Page 639 note 3} For details, see ‘CIA Trials Begin’, in West Africa, 21 October 1985, and Africa Report, 30, 5, September—October 1985, pp. 38–9.

^{Page 640 note 1} See ‘Ghana. U.S. Expel Government Workers’, in Greensboro News & Record, 30 November 1985. Also Africa Report, 31, 1, January—February, pp. 32–3.

^{Page 641 note 1} West Africa, 13 July 1987, p. 1343.

^{Page 641 note 2} Ibid. 3 August 1987, p. 1477.