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² For the purposes of this study francophone Africa includes 25 independent states from the following regions: Central Africa (Burundi, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Congo, Gabon, Rwanda, and Zaïre); East Africa (Djibouti); Indian Ocean (Comoros, Madagascar, Mauritius, and Seychelles); North Africa or the ‘Maghreb’ (Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia); and West Africa (Benin, Burkina Faso, Côte d'Ivoire, Guinea, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Senegal, and Togo). This definition covers the entire continent, rather than the more exclusionary set of subSaharan African countries.

³ According to Martin, Guy, ‘Francophone Africa in the Context of Franco-American Relations’, in Harbeson, John W. and Rothchild, Donald (eds.), Africa in World Politics: post-cold war challenges (Boulder, San Francisco, Oxford, 1995 edn.), p. 163, among other factors that make francophone Africa ‘unique and distinctive’ are: (i) ‘a common (French or Belgian) colonial experience’; (ii) ‘a broad cultural unity … resulting from a fusion of French and African cultures’; (iii) ‘a tradition of moderation and compromise arising out of a peaceful transfer of power at independence’; and (iv) ‘the perpetuation of Franco-African relations characterized by a pattern of continuing French political, economic, and cultural power and influence’.Google Scholar

⁴ For a good overview, see Wauthier, Claude, Quatre présidents et l'Afrique: De Gaulle, Pompidou, Giscard d'Estaing, Mitterrand (Paris, 1995).Google Scholar

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¹¹ Quoted in Hook, National Interest and Foreign Aid, p. 66.

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¹⁶ Martin, loc. cit. p. 170.

¹⁷ See Glaser, Antoine and Smith, Stephen, Ces messieurs Afrique: le Paris – village du continent noir (Paris, 1992).Google Scholar

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¹⁹ Kolodziej, op. cit. p. 479.

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²¹ These 13 countries are: Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Gabon, Mali, Niger, Senegal, and Togo.

²² For example, see Patrick, and Guillaumont, Sylvianne, Zone franc et développement africain (Paris, 1984),Google Scholar and Vallée, Olivier, Le Prix de Pargent CFA: heurs et malheurs de la zone franc (Paris, 1989).Google Scholar

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³⁰ See, for example, Spanier, John and Hook, Steven W., American Policy Since World War II (Washington, DC, 1974, 13th edn.);Google ScholarSchraeder, Peter J. (ed.), Intervention Into the 1990s: U. S. foreign policy in the Third World (Boulder, CO, 1992);Google Scholar and Kegley, Charles W. Jr, and Wittkopf, Eugene R., American Foreign Policy: pattern and process (New York, 1996, 5th edn.)Google Scholar

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³² Doug Bandow, ‘Economic and Military Aid’, in ibid. p. 81.

³³ Ibid. p. 79.

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⁴⁴ Ibid. p. 227.

⁴⁵ Quoted by French, Howard, ‘France's Master Puppeteer in Africa Drops the Veil’, in International Herald Tribune (Paris), 03 1995, p. 1.Google Scholar

⁴⁶ See Hasegawa, Sukehiro, Japanese Foreign Aid: policy and practice (New York, 1975), p. 3,Google Scholar and Soroos, Marvin S., ‘Global Interdependence and Responsibilities of States: learning from the Japanese experience’, in Journal of Peace Research (London), 25 03 1988, p. 21.Google Scholar

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⁵² For a variety of summaries of this trend, see Hyden, Goran and Bratton, Michael (eds.), Governance and Politics in Africa (Boulder and London, 1992);Google ScholarMartin, Guy, ‘Democratic Transition in Africa’, in Issue: a journal of opinion (Los Angeles), 21, 1–2, 1993, pp. 6–7;Google Scholar and Schraeder, Peter J., ‘Elites as Facilitators or Impediments to Political Development? Some Lessons from the “Third Wave” of Democratization in Africa’, in The Journal of Developing Areas (Macomb IL), 29, 1, 10 1994, pp. 69–90.Google Scholar

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⁵⁴ The remaining countries are described as falling under one of three categories: ‘directed democracy’ (11 per cent), ‘authoritarian’ rule (6 per cent), and ‘contested sovereignty’ (15 per cent).

⁵⁵ See Glaser and Smith, op. cit. 1994, p. 101.

⁵⁶ See Boulaga, F. Eboussi, Les Conférences nationales en Afrique noire: une affair à suivre (Paris, 1993).Google Scholar

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⁶² Glaser and Smith, op. cit. p. 192.

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⁶⁴ Glaser and Smith, op. cit. p. 102.

⁶⁵ Ibid. p. 103.

⁶⁶ See Diop, Momar Coumba and Diouf, Mamadou, Le Sénégal sous Abdou Diouf: étate et société (Paris, 1990),Google Scholar and Kanté, Babacar, ‘Senegal's Empty Elections’, in Journal of Democracy (Baltimore), 5, 1, 1994, pp. 96–108.Google Scholar

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⁷⁷ See Thomson, Alex, ‘Incomplete Engagement: Reagan's South Africa policy revisited’, in The Journal of Modern African Studies, 33, 1, 03 1995, pp.83–101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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⁸⁵ Personal interview, Washington, DC.

⁸⁶ Personal interview, Washington, DC.

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⁸⁹ Huband, loc. cit. p. 43.

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⁹³ Ibid. p. 187.

⁹⁴ Martin, ‘Continuity and Change in Franco-African Relations’, pp. 15–16.

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⁹⁹ Personal interview, Dakar.

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