Institute of Medicine, Unequal Treatment: Confronting Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Health Care, ed. B.D. Smedley, A.Y. Stith, and A.R. Nelson (Washington, DC: 2003); Bailey, Z.D., Feldman, J.M., and Bassett, M.T., “How Structural Racism Works - Racist Policies as a Root Cause of U.S. Racial Health Inequities,” New England Journal of Medicine 384, no. 8 (2021): 768-773; H. McCoy, “Black Lives Matter, and Yes, You are Racist: The Parallelism of the Twentieth and Twenty-First Centuries,” Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal 37 (2020): 463–475; R.R. Hardeman, E.M. Medina, and K.B. Kozhimannil, “Structural Racism and Supporting Black Lives - The Role of Health Professionals,” New England Journal of Medicine 375, no. 22 (2016): 2113-2115; J. Feagin and Z. Bennefield, “Systemic Racism and U.S. Health Care,” Social Science and Medicine 103 (2014): 7-14; C. Amutah et al., “Misrepresenting Race - The Role of Medical Schools in Propagating Physician Bias,” New England Journal of Medicine 384, no. 9 (2021):872-878; R.M. Davis, “Achieving Racial Harmony for the Benefit of Patients and Communities: Contrition, Reconciliation, and Collaboration,” Journal of the American Medical Association 300, no. 3 (2008): 323-325; R.B. Baker et al., “African American Physicians and Organized Medicine, 1846-1968: Origins of a Racial Divide,” Journal of the American Medical Association 300, no. 3 (2008):306-313; R.B. Baker et al., “Creating a Segregated Medical Profession: African American Physicians and Organized Medicine, 1846-1910,” Journal of the National Medical Association 101, no. 6 (2009): 501-512; H.A. Washington et al., “Segregation, Civil Rights, and Health Disparities: The Legacy of African American Physicians and Organized Medicine, 1910-1968,” Journal of the National Medical Association 101, no. 6 (2009): 513-527; J. Antonovich et al., “Apologies Alone Won’t Solve Structural Racism: We Need a Reckoning with the Racist Roots of U.S. Medicine,” Medical Humanities blog, Editor: B. Schillace, March 5, 2021, available at <https://blogs.bmj.com/medical-humanities/2021/03/05/apologies-alone-wont-solve-structural-racism-we-need-a-reckoning-with-the-racist-roots-of-u-s-medicine/> (last visited March 31, 2021).CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Non-white conforming can also include individuals who do not pose a threat to whiteness or white power. See also: Bailey, supra note 1; Hardeman, supra note 1; Amutah, supra note 1; Hekman, D.R. et al., “Does Diversity-Valuing Behavior Result in Diminished Performance Ratings for Non-White and Female Leaders?” Academy of Management Journal 60, no. 2 (2016): 771-797; J.P. Cerdena, M.V. Plaisime, and J. Tsai, “From Race-Based to Race-Conscious Medicine: How Anti-Racist Uprisings Call Us to Act,” Lancet 396, no. 10257 (2020): 1125-1128; C.L. Bennett et al., “Two Decades of Little Change: An Analysis of U.S. Medical School Basic Science Faculty by Sex, Race/Ethnicity, and Academic Rank,” PLoS One 15, no. 7 (2020): e0235190.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

McCoy, , supra note 1; Hardeman, supra note 1; Clark, P.A. , “Prejudice and the Medical Profession: A Five-Year Update,” Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics 37, no. 1 (2009): 118-133.Google Scholar

Antonovich, et al., supra note 1.Google Scholar

Hardeman, Medina, and Kozhimannil, supra note 1; Cohan, D., “Racist Like Me - A Call to Self-Reflection and Action for White Physicians,” New England Journal of Medicine 380, no. 9 (2019): 805-807; N. Subbaraman, “How #BlackInTheIvory Put a Spotlight on Racism in Academia,” Nature 582, no. 7812 (2020): 327; T.R. Wyatt et al., “‘Changing the Narrative’: A Study on Professional Identity Formation among Black/African American Physicians in the U.S.,” Advances in Health Sciences Education 26, no. 1 (2021): 183-198.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bennett, et al., supra note 2; Nunez-Smith, M. et al., “Institutional Variation in the Promotion of Racial/Ethnic Minority Faculty at US Medical Schools,” American Journal of Public Health 102, no. 5 (2012): 852-858.Google Scholar

Smith, R., “Moving from Allyship to Antiracism,” Creative Nursing 27, no. 1 (2021): 51-54.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Subbaraman, supra note 5; Serafini, K. et al., “Racism as Experienced by Physicians of Color in the Health Care Setting,” Family Medicine 52, no. 4 (2020): 282-287; F. Munn, “Reporting Racism on the Wards,” British Medical Journal 359 (2017): j5178; M. Doede, “Race as a Predictor of Job Satisfaction and Turnover in US Nurses,” Journal of Nursing Management 25, no. 3 (2017): 207-214; J.C. Hall, J.E. Everett, and J. Hamilton-Mason, “Black Women Talk about Workplace Stress and How They Cope,” Journal of Black Studies 43, no. 2 (2012): 207-226; A. Osseo-Asare, L. Balasuriya, S.J. Huot, D. Keene, D. Berg, M. Nunez-Smith, et al., “Minority Resident Physicians’ Views on the Role of Race/Ethnicity in Their Training Experiences in the Workplace,” Journal of the American Medical Association Network Open 1, no. 5 (2018): e182723.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Some have encouraged black colleagues to keep a running log of racist encounters (time-stamped and listing others present), making it more difficult to dismiss events as isolated. See also: A. Gallo, “How to Respond to an Offensive Comment at Work,” Harvard Business Review, February 8, 2017, available at <https://hbr.org/2017/02/how-to-respond-to-an-offensive-comment-at-work> (last visited April 26, 2021).+(last+visited+April+26,+2021).>Google Scholar

Institute of Medicine, supra note 1; Bailey, supra 1; Cerdena, supra note 2; Clark, supra note 3.Google Scholar

Feagin and Bennefield, supra note 1; Cerdena, Plaisime, and Tsai, supra note 2; Clark, supra note 3; Noonan, A.S., Velasco-Mondragon, H.E., and Wagner, F.A., “Improving the Health of African Americans in The USA: An Overdue Opportunity for Social Justice,” Public Health Reviews 37, no. 12 (2016); J.V. Sakran, E.J. Hilton, and C. Sathya, “Racism in Health Care Isn’t Always Obvious,” Scientific American, available at <https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/racism-in-health-care-isnt-always-obvious/> (last visited April 1, 2021).CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Institute of Medicine, supra note 1; Hardeman, Medina, and Kozhimannil, supra note 1; Freeman, L. and Stewart, H., “Microaggressions in Clinical Medicine,” Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 28, no. 4 (2018): 411-449; E.N. Chapman, A. Kaatz, and M. Carnes, “Physicians and Implicit Bias: How Doctors May Unwittingly Perpetuate Health Care Disparities,” Journal of General Internal Medicine 28, no. 11 (2013): 1504-1510.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Garran, A.M. and Rasmussen, B.M., “How Should Organizations Respond to Racism Against Health Care Work-ers?” American Medical Association Journal of Ethics 21, no. 6 (2019): E499-504; K.L. Reynolds et al., “When a Family Requests a White Doctor,” Pediatrics 136, no. 2 (2015): 381-386; K. Paul-Emile et al., “Dealing with Racist Patients,” New England Journal of Medicine 374, no. 8 (2016): 708-711; S.S. de Bourmont et al., C. Sloan, et al., “Resident Physician Experiences with and Responses to Biased Patients,” Journal of the American Medical Association Network Open 3, no. 11 (2020): e2021769.Google Scholar

Serafini et al., supra note 8; Osseo-Asare et al., supra note 8; Betancourt, J.R. and Reid, A.E., “Black Physicians’ Experience with Race: Should We Be Surprised?” Annals of Internal Medicine 146, no. 1 (2007): 68-69; M. Nunez-Smith et al., “Impact of Race on the Professional Lives of Physicians of African Descent,” Annals of Internal Medicine 146, no. 1 (2007): 45-51; T.R. Whitaker, “Banging on a Locked Door: The Persistent Role of Racial Discrimination in the Workplace,” Social Work in Public Health 34, no. 1 (2019): 22-27; A.A. Coombs and R.K. King, “Workplace Discrimination: Experiences of Practicing Physicians,” Journal the National Medical Association 97, no. 4 (2005): 467-477.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Hall, Everett, and Hamilton-Mason, supra note 8; Sue, D.W. et al., “Racial Microaggressions in Everyday Life: Implications for Clinical Practice,” American Psychologist 62, no. 4 (2007): 271-286.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Nunez-Smith, et al., supra note 14.Google Scholar

Wyatt et al., supra note 5; Serafini et al., supra note 8; Doede supra note 8; Osseo-Asare et al., supra note 8; Betancourt and Reid, supra note 14; Whitaker, supra note 14; Coombs and King, supra note 14; Merrill, D.G. , “Speak Up,” Journal of the American Medical Association 317, no. 23 (2017): 2373-2374.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Coombs and King, supra note 14; Merrill supra note 7; Carr, P.L. et al., “Faculty Perceptions of Gender Discrimination and Sexual Harassment in Academic Medicine,” Annals of Internal Medicine 132, no. 11 (2000): 889-896; D.W. Lu et al., “#MeToo in EM: A Multicenter Survey of Academic Emergency Medicine Faculty on Their Experiences with Gender Discrimination and Sexual Harassment,” Western Journal of Emergency Medicine 21, no. 2 (2020): 252-260.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Hardeman, Medina, and Kozhimannil, supra note 1.Google Scholar

Bailey, Feldman, and Bassett, supra note 1; Hardeman, Medina, and Kozhimannil, supra note 1; See generally Kendi, I.X. , How to Be an Antiracist (New York, NY: One World, 2019).Google Scholar

Kendi, supra note 20; Solly, M., “158 Resources to Understand Racism in America,” Smithsonian Magazine, June 4, 2020, available at <https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/158-resources-understanding-systemic-racism-america-180975029/> (last accessed April 2, 2021).+(last+accessed+April+2,+2021).>Google Scholar

McCoy, supra note 1; Hardeman, Medina, and Kozhimannil, supra note 1; Cohan, supra note 5; Sue, supra note 15; Kendi, supra note 20; Dudzinski, D.M., “White Privilege and Playing It Safe,” American Journal of Bioethics 18, no. 6 (2018): 4-5; Y. Paradies, M. Truong, and N. Priest, “A Systematic Review of the Extent and Measurement of Healthcare Provider Racism.” Journal of General Internal Medicine 29, no. 2 (2014): 364-387; I.W. Maina et al., “A Decade of Studying Implicit Racial/Ethnic Bias in Healthcare Providers Using the Implicit Association Test,” Social Science and Medicine 199 (2018): 219-229; W. J. Hall, M.V. Chapman, K.M. Lee, Y.M. Merino, T.W. Thomas, B.K. Payne, et al., “Implicit Racial/Ethnic Bias Among Health Care Professionals and Its Influence on Health Care Outcomes: A Systematic Review,” American Journal of Public Health 105, no. 12 (2015): e60-76.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Sue et al., supra note 15; Kendi, supra note 20.Google Scholar

Hall, Everett, and Hamilton-Mason, supra note 8; Gallo, supra note 9; Coombs and King, supra note 14, Sue et al., supra note 15; Ferlazzo, L., “The Importance of Challenging Teachers’ Microaggressions,” Education Week, September 14, 2020, available at <https://www.edweek.org/leadership/opinion-the-importance-of-challenging-teachers-microaggres-sions/2020/09> (last visited April 24, 2021); Decuir-Gunby, J.T. and Gunby, N.W., “Racial Microaggressions in the Workplace: A Critical Race Analysis of the Experiences of African American Educators,” Urban Education 51, no. 4 (2016): 390-414.Google Scholar

Whitaker, supra note 14; Paradies, Truong, and Priest, supra note 22; Chapman, C.H. et al., “Why Racial Justice Matters in Radiation Oncology,” Advances in Radiation Oncology 5, no. 5 (2020): 783-790.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Cohan, supra note 5.Google Scholar

Ferlazzo, L., “‘We Can’t Wait Until People Feel Comfortable Talking About Race,’” Education Week (2021), available at <https://www.edweek.org/leadership/opinion-we-cant-wait-until-people-feel-comfortable-talking-about-race/2021/01> (last visited April 26, 2021).+(last+visited+April+26,+2021).>Google Scholar

Id.Google Scholar

Subbaraman, supra note 5; Serafini et al., supra note 8; Munn, supra note 8; Betancourt and Reid, supra note 14; Nunez-Smith et al., supra note 14; Yousif, H., Ayogu, N., and Bell, T., “The Path Forward — An Antiracist Approach to Academic Medicine,” New England Journal of Medicine 383, no. 15 (2020): e91; M. Ikpoh, “Broken Mirrors: A Trainee’s Experience of Racism in the Workplace,” British Journal of General Practice Open 4, no. 5 (2020): 1-2; J.M. Liebschutz et al., “In the Minority: Black Physicians in Residency and their Experiences,” Journal of the National Medical Association 98, no. 9 (2006): 1441-1448.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Cohan, supra note 5; Gallo, supra note 9; Dudzinski, supra note 22.Google Scholar

Gallo, supra note 9.Google Scholar

Cohan, supra note 5.Google Scholar

Gallo, supra note 9; Ferlazzo, supra note 24.Google Scholar

Cohan, supra note 5; Ferlazzo, supra note 24.Google Scholar

Ferlazzo, supra note 24.Google Scholar

Subbaraman, supra note 5; Munn, supra note 8; Osseo-Asare et al., supra note 8; Betancourt and Reid, supra note 14; Whitaker, supra note 14; Coombs and King, supra note 14; Carr et al., supra note 18; Lu et al., supra note 18; Chapman et al., supra note 25; Yousif, Aogu, and Bell, supra note 29; Liebschutz et al., supra note 29.Google Scholar

Ferlazzo, supra note 24.Google Scholar

The strawman fallacy can take shape as a misconstruing or deliberate mis-assignment of beliefs to a person, and rebutting those beliefs in a misleading defeat of the original position. Raising such tangential or non-sequitur counterarguments can be interpreted as devious means of distracting from the original point — further distancing one from meaningful discourse. See also Slatin, C. , “Calling Out White Supremacy,” New Solutions 29, no. 1 (2019): 5-9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Gallo, supra note 9; Sue et al., supra note 15; Ferlazzo, supra note 24.Google Scholar

Iyamah, J.O., “Debate Club Racism,” Instagram, June 25, 2020, available at <https://www.instagram.com/p/CB3kNK_FF5Y/> (last visited April 26, 2021).+(last+visited+April+26,+2021).>Google Scholar

Anderson-Carpenter, K.D., “Black Lives Matter Principles as an Africentric Approach to Improving Black American Health,” Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities (2020).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Whitaker, supra note 14; A. Piper, “My Calling (Card) #1,” (1986) [Off-set lithograph]; Piper, A., “Passing for White, Passing for Black,” Transition 58 (1992): 4-32; R. Perez, “Racism without Hatred? Racist Humor and the Myth of ‘Colorblindness’,” Sociological Perspectives 60, no. 5 (2017): 956-974.Google Scholar

Perez, supra note 42.Google Scholar

Cohan, supra note 5Google Scholar

Id. Google Scholar

Ferlazzo, supra note 24.Google Scholar

Elmore, S., “#DNRTulane To #MedTwit-ter — If Dr. Dennar’s story isn’t immediately recognizable to you, it means that 1) you don’t actually know any Black people well enough to be trusted with our stories and 2) you don’t actually know yourselves or your own healthcare systems.” Twitter, February 13, 2021, available at <https://twitter.com/pre_rad/status/1360595917003448322> (last visited April 26, 2021).+(last+visited+April+26,+2021).>Google Scholar

Cohan, supra note 5.Google Scholar

Ferlazzo, L., “Educators Must Challenge Racist Language & Actions,” Education Week, September 1, 2020, available at <https://www.edweek.org/teaching-learning/opinion-educators-must-challenge-racist-language-actions/2020/09> (last visited April 26, 2021).+(last+visited+April+26,+2021).>Google Scholar

McCoy, supra note 1; Chapman et al., supra note 25; Ferlazzo, supra note 49; O’Brien, M., Fields, R., and Jackson, A., Anti-Racism and Race Literacy: A Primer and Toolkit for Medical Educators (San Francisco: CA: University of California, San Francisco, 2021); S.S. Flicker and A. Klein, Anti-Racism Resources (2020), available at <bit.ly/ANTIRACISMRESOURCES> (last visited April 26, 2021); K. Case, “How Not to Be an Ally: Common Missteps and Advice for Effective Allyship,” Psychology Today, April 9, 2019.Google Scholar

Gould, C.C., “Solidarity and the Problem of Structural Injustice in Healthcare,” Bioethics 32, no. 9 (2018): 541-552.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Jennings, B., “Solidarity and Care as Relational Practices,” Bioethics 32, no. 9 (2018): 553-561; B. Jennings and A. Dawson, “Solidarity in the Moral Imagination of Bioethics,” Hastings Center Report 45, no. 5 (2015): 31-38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Dawson, A. and Jennings, B., “The Place of Solidarity in Public Health Ethics,” Public Health Reviews 34, no. 4 (2012): 65-79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Gould, supra note 51.Google Scholar