Coverage of ice velocities in the central part of the Southern Alps, New Zealand, is obtained from feature tracking using repeat optical imagery in 2002 and 2006. Precise orthorectification, co-registration and correlation is carried out using the freely available software COSI-Corr. This analysis, combined with short times between image acquisitions, has enabled velocities to be captured even in the accumulation areas, where velocities are lowest and surface features ephemeral. The results indicate large velocities for mountain glaciers (i.e. up to ∼5 m d−1) as well as dynamic changes in some glaciers that have occurred between 2002 and 2006. For the steep and more responsive Fox and Franz Josef Glaciers the speed increased at the glacier snout during the advance period, while the low-angled and debris-covered Tasman Glacier showed no measurable velocity change. Velocity increases on the steeper glaciers are the result of an observed thickening and steepening of the glacier tongues as they moved from a retreat phase in 2002 to an advance phase in 2006. This contrasting behaviour is consistent with historic terminus position changes. The steeper glaciers have undergone several advance/retreat cycles during the observation period (1894 to present), while the low-angled glacier showed little terminus response until retreat resulting from the accelerating growth of a proglacial lake commenced in 1983.

The glaciers in the Melville Bay region of northwest Greenland have shown a mean retreat since the earliest observations at the beginning of the 20th century. The largest, Steenstrup Gletscher, has retreated ∼20 km, partly during the period of atmospheric cooling 1940–80. Melville Bay air-temperature observations starting in 1981 indicate a regional change of +0.20°C a−1. This exceeds the warming on the east coast of Greenland, confirming the west coast to be a region of relatively large change, also in a global perspective. The largest temperature increase is observed in the winter months (0.3–0.4°C a−1). Results from a 4 year (2004–08) net ablation record obtained by an automatic weather station (AWS) near the calving front of Steenstrup Gletscher show an ablation rate that is relatively low for a low-elevation position on the Greenland ice sheet (2.4 m ice equivalent per year). A first-order estimate from positive degree-day totals suggests that net ablation has roughly doubled since the 1980s. A surface energy and mass-balance model is applied to the Steenstrup AWS data to quantify the energy flux contributions to surface melt. Solar radiation is the main source for melt energy, but, due to shortwave radiation penetration into the ice, only one-third of the melt takes place at the glacier surface; nearly two-thirds occurs within the upper ice layers.

An unexpectedly low annual net accumulation (20 cm w.e.a−1) has been inferred from analyses of a firn core extracted from Glaciar Monte San Valentín, Northern Patagonia Icefield (46°35′ S, 73°19′ W; 3747 m a.s.l.). We test a hypothesis linking the low accumulation to a frequent lack of cloud cover over the mountain range at this altitude. The cloudiness over Monte San Valentín and surrounding regions is examined using ∼3000 daily MODIS satellite images from 2000 to 2008. The visual evaluation of the synoptic situation leads to the definition of a daily cloudiness index (EI) for the San Valentín summit and for the regions to the southwest (SW) and northeast (NE). We check its robustness by applying different tests and comparisons. Three levels are assigned for the EI: ‘clear’ (EI = 0), ‘cloudy’ (EI = 1) and ‘mixed’ (EI = 0.5). The results show that the SV cloud cover is similar to the regional cloudiness for more than half the year (54%) and that the case in which the San Valentín summit is clear while both SW and NE regions are cloudy is exceptional (2%). As clouds are necessary to provide precipitation, we show that the low annual net accumulation cannot be explained by an uncommon low cloudiness. This result implies that net accumulation inferred from ice cores in this Andean region must be cautiously interpreted. We also point out that the Andes at this latitude acts as an orographic barrier but without a total blocking of air masses.

We report the detection of bursts of low-frequency waves, typically f = 0.025 Hz, on horizontal channels of broadband seismometers deployed on the Arctic sea-ice cover during the DAMOCLES (Developing Arctic Modeling and Observing Capabilities for Long-term Environmental Studies) experiment in spring 2007. These bursts have amplitudes well above the ambient ice swell and a lower frequency content. Their typical duration is of the order of minutes. They occur at irregular times, with periods of relative quietness alternating with periods of strong activity. A significant correlation between the rate of burst occurrences and the ice-cover deformation at the ∼400 km scale centered on the seismic network suggests that these bursts are caused by remote, episodic deformation involving shearing across regional-scale leads. This observation opens the possibility of complementing satellite measurements of ice-cover deformation, by providing a much more precise temporal sampling, hence a better characterization of the processes involved during these deformation events.

Jökulhlaups in 2007 and 2008 from an ice-dammed lake at the northern margin of Russell Glacier, West Greenland, marked the onset of a renewed jökulhlaup cycle after 20 years of stability. We present a record of successive ice-dammed lake drainage events and associated ice-margin dynamics spanning ∼25 years. Robust calculations of lake volumes and peak discharges are made, based on intensive field surveys and utilizing high-spatial-resolution orthophotographs of the lake basin and ice margin. These data enable identification of controls on the behaviour of the ice-dammed lake and provide the first field-based examination of controls on jökulhlaup magnitude and frequency for this system. We find that Russell Glacier jökulhlaups have a much higher peak discharge than predicted by the Clague–Mathews relationship, which we attribute to an unusually short englacial/subglacial routeway and the presence of a thin ice dam that permits incomplete sealing of jökulhlaup conduits between lake drainage events. Additionally, we demonstrate that the passage of jökulhlaups through an interlinked system of proglacial bedrock basins produces significant attenuation of peak discharge downstream. We highlight that improved understanding of jökulhlaup dynamics requires accurate information about ice-dammed lake volume and ice-proximal jökulhlaup discharge.

A large part of the ice flux within ice caps occurs through spatially limited fast-flowing units. Some of them permanently maintain fast flow, whereas others operate in an oscillatory mode, characterized by short-lived active phases followed by long quiescent phases. This surge-type behaviour results from intrinsic rather than external factors, thus complicating estimates of glacier response to climate change. Here we present numerical model results from Austfonna, an ice cap on Svalbard that comprises several surge-type basins. Previous studies have suggested a thermally controlled soft-bed surge mechanism for Svalbard. We systematically change the parameters that govern the nature of basal motion and thereby control the transition between permanent and oscillatory fast flow. Surge-type behaviour is realized by a relatively abrupt onset of basal sliding when basal temperatures approach the pressure-melting point and enhanced sliding of marine grounded ice. Irrespective of the dynamic regime, the absence of considerable volumes of temperate ice, both in the observed and simulated ice cap, indicates that fast flow is accomplished by basal motion over a temperate bed. Given an idealized present-day climate, the equilibrium ice-cap size varies significantly, depending on the chosen parameters.

We present a novel automated processing method for obtaining layer dip from radio-echo sounding (RES) data. The method is robust, easily applicable and can be used to process large (several terabytes) ground and airborne RES datasets using modest computing resources. We give test results from the application of the method to two Antarctic datasets: the Fletcher Promontory ground-based radar dataset and the Wilkes Subglacial Basin airborne radar dataset. The automated RES processing (ARESP) method comprises the basic steps: (1) RES noise reduction; (2) radar layer identification; (3) isolation of individual ‘layer objects’; (4) measurement of orientation and other object properties; (5) elimination of noise in the orientation data; and (6) collation of the valid dip information. The apparent dip datasets produced by the method will aid glaciologists seeking to understand ice-flow dynamics in Greenland and Antarctica: ARESP could enable a shift from selective regional case studies to ice-sheet-scale studies.

In snow, acoustic emissions originate from the breaking of bonds between snow crystals and the formation of cracks. Previous research has shown that acoustic signals emanate from a natural snowpack. The relation between these signals and the stability of the snowpack has thus far remained elusive. Studies on other hazardous gravitational processes suggest that damage accumulation precedes major failure. If increased cracking activity could be detected in snow this might be used for avalanche prediction. We report on the development of a seismic sensor array to continuously monitor acoustic emissions in an avalanche start zone. During three winters, over 1400 sensor days of continuous acoustic data were collected. With the aid of automatic cameras and a microphone the main types of background noise were identified. Seismic signals generated by avalanches were also identified. Spectrograms from seismic signals generated by avalanches exhibit a unique triangular shape unlike any source of background noise, suggesting that automatic detection and classification of events is possible. Furthermore, discriminating between loose-snow and snow-slab avalanches is possible. Thus far we have not identified precursor events for natural dry-snow slab avalanche release. Detailed investigation of one dry-snow slab avalanche showed that signals observed prior to the release originated from background noise or small loose-snow avalanches.

Impact pressures of snow avalanches have been measured at the Swiss Vallée de la Sionne experimental test site using two kinds of sensor placed at different locations in the avalanche flow. Pressures measured in a fast dry-snow avalanche and a slow wet-snow avalanche are compared and discussed. The pressures recorded using the two types of sensor in the dense flow of a dry-snow avalanche agree well, showing negligible dependence on the measurement device. On the other hand, significantly different pressures are measured in the slow dense flow of a wet-snow avalanche. This is attributed to the slow drag and bulk flow of this type of avalanche, leading to the formation and collapse of force-chain structures against the different surfaces of the sensors. At a macroscopic scale, limit state analysis can be used to explain such a mechanism by a shear failure occurring between freely flowing snow and a confined snow volume against the sensor, according to a Mohr–Coulomb failure criterion. The proposed model explains (1) how impact pressure can be up to eight times higher than hydrostatic snow pressure in wet cohesive slow avalanches and (2) its dependence on sensor geometry.

We have developed a technique in which we use a borehole video camera and post-processing software to make a record of the optical brightness as a function of depth in polar firn. We call this method borehole optical stratigraphy. To measure firn compaction, we note the positions of optical features on the borehole wall detected by an initial ‘baseline’ log. We track the displacements of these features in subsequent logs. The result provides a measurement of the relative vertical motion and thus compaction of the firn over the survey period. We have successfully used this system at Summit, Greenland, to measure the depth distribution of firn column shortening experienced in a borehole over three 1 year periods. The uppermost 30 m of the firn at Summit is compacting as predicted by a simple steady-state model, implying that the firn density profile at Summit is at or close to steady state over the past ∼70 years.

A low-cost, compact, short-pulse ice-penetrating radar (IPR) system with a center frequency of 50 MHz for sounding glacier topography is presented. The radar was developed to measure ice thickness and to image internal structures and basal conditions of glaciers and ice sheets with a maximum range of ∼16000 ns and a depth resolution better than 2.5 m. The receiver of the IPR system employs asynchronous operation mode, avoiding the need for a cable between the transmitter and receiver. A new sampling technology using a high-speed field programmable gate array, which implements a 256-trace stacking algorithm to realize the analog-to-digital conversion, both simplifies the structure of the receiver and increases the sampling efficiency. The power consumption of the whole receiver is <1.5 W, which can be supplied by a laptop computer. Test measurements were made during the 5th China Expedition to the Grove Mountains in East Antarctica. Field tests show the capability of this system to measure ice thickness up to 650 m and to define internal layers within the ice body.

Models are proposed for channelized and distributed flow of meltwater at the base of an ice sheet. The volumes of both channel and distributed systems evolve according to a competition between processes that open drainage space (e.g. sliding over bedrock, melting of the ice) and processes that close it (e.g. viscous creep of the ice due to a positive effective pressure). Channels are generally predicted to have lower water pressure and therefore capture water from the surrounding regions of distributed flow. There is a natural length scale associated with the distributed system that determines the width of the bed from which water can be drawn into a channel. It is suggested that this determines the spacing between major channels and that this may be reflected in the spacing of eskers. A more permeable distributed system results in more widely spaced, and therefore larger, channels. Calculations of the flow into the head of a channel reveal that there is a critical discharge necessary for it to form, and provide a criterion for where channels can exist.

The determination of basal properties on ice streams from surface data is formulated as a Bayesian statistical inference problem. The theory is applied to a flowline on Rutford Ice Stream, West Antarctica. Estimates of bed topography and basal slipperiness are updated using measurements of surface topography and the horizontal and vertical components of the surface velocity. The surface topography is allowed to vary within measurement errors. We calculate the transient evolution of the surface until rates of surface elevation change are within limits given by measurements. For our final estimation of basal properties, modelled rates of elevation change are in full agreement with estimates of surface elevation changes. Results are discarded from a section of the flowline where the distribution of surface residuals is not consistent with error estimates. Apart from a general increase in basal slipperiness toward the grounding line, we find no evidence for any spatial variations in basal slipperiness. In particular, we find that short-scale variability (<10 × ice thickness) in surface topography and surface velocities can be reproduced by the model by variations in basal topography only. Assuming steady-state conditions, an almost perfect agreement is found between modelled and measured surface geometry, suggesting that Rutford Ice Stream is currently close to a steady state.

A thin-blade snow hardness gauge was developed that measures penetration resistance over a length scale (on the order of 10–100 grain contacts) relevant to the fracture of slab avalanches. A thin blade was chosen to measure the ruptures of bonds and grain structures and minimize the effects of snow compaction during penetration. The apparatus consists of a 10 cm wide, 0.6 mm thick stainless-steel blade attached to a digital push–pull gauge. Blade penetration measurements are easy to conduct in the field and laboratory and required no post-processing or subjective interpretation. Measurements were conducted in snow pits to test the effects of penetration rate, blade orientation and blade width. The blade hardness index, defined as the maximum force of penetration, is a highly repeatable measure across observers compared to the hand hardness test. The blade hardness index was a better variable than the density for correlating with tensile strength measurements in a cold laboratory and with a cohesive strength measure in the field. As strength is one of the most important parameters in the fracture mechanics of slab avalanches, the strong correlation between thin-blade penetration and strength should benefit future slope stability evaluations using this gauge.

Creep tests provide invaluable data to better understand the physical properties of ice under various conditions. We describe here a simple, updated pneumatic apparatus for experimental studies of ice rheological properties. The apparatus is designed to perform two simultaneous compression creep tests either in a cold room or in atmospheric conditions when coupled to an external cooling circulator. We present results from calibration tests of the apparatus and provide new data from creep tests performed on temperate glacier ice samples. These calibration and creep results show that the apparatus is able to provide fast and reliable mechanical ice characterization. The secondary creep rates measured in this study range between 1.59 × 10−8 s−1 (at 0.21 MPa) and 4.38 × 10−7 s−1 (at 0.71 MPa) at −10°C for quasi-isotropic ice, which is consistent with former standard published data. The corresponding mean parameter, A, is 5.20 × 10−16 s−1 kPa−3, which also compares well with the range of reported other studies.

The existence of solutions of the non-sliding shallow-ice-sheet equation on a flat horizontal bed with a mass balance linearly depending on altitude is proven for fixed margins. Free-margin solutions for the same mass balance do not exist. Fixed-margin solutions show unbounded shear stress and nonzero mass flux at the margin. Steady-state solutions with realistic margins, vanishing ice flux and vanishing shear stress are found numerically for ice sheets with Weertman-type sliding.

Avalanche hazard evaluation relies in part on representative snowpack stability observations. Thus, understanding the spatial patterns of snowpack instabilities and their environmental determinants is crucial. This case study integrates intensive field observations with spatial modeling to identify associations between incoming radiation, surface hoar development and its subsequent shear strength across an inclined forest opening. We examined a buried surface hoar layer in southwest Montana, USA, over five sampling days, collecting 824 SnowMicroPen resistance profiles and performing 352 shear frame tests. Spatial models of incoming long- and shortwave radiation were generated for the surface hoar formation period using modeled hemispheric sky visibility, physically based parameters and the Bird Clear Sky Radiation Model in a Geographic Information System. Before burial, the surface hoar persisted despite moderate winds and relatively high air temperatures. The buried surface hoar layer thickness varied between 3 and 21 mm within a distance of 30 m. Modeled incoming radiation explained spatial variations in layer thickness and shear strength. In areas exposed to large amounts of radiation, the surface hoar layer was strong and thin, while areas with limited incoming radiation (due to high sky visibility and shading) possessed a thicker surface hoar layer that sheared more easily. This demonstrates the usefulness of microclimate modeling for slope-scale avalanche hazard evaluation. We also identify that over the 3 week sample period, strengthening occurred without thinning of the surface hoar layer.

We explore the robustness and transferability of parameterizations of cloud radiative forcing used in glacier melt models at two sites in the Swiss Alps. We also look at the rationale behind some of the most commonly used approaches, and explore the relationship between cloud transmittance and several standard meteorological variables. The 2 m air-temperature diurnal range is the best predictor of variations in cloud transmittance. However, linear and exponential parameterizations can only explain 30–50% of the observed variance in computed cloud transmittance factors. We examine the impact of modelled cloud transmittance factors on both solar radiation and ablation rates computed with an enhanced temperature-index model. The melt model performance decreases when modelled radiation is used, the reduction being due to an underestimation of incoming solar radiation on clear-sky days. The model works well under overcast conditions. We also seek alternatives to the use of in situ ground data. However, outputs from an atmospheric model (2.2 km horizontal resolution) do not seem to provide an alternative to the parameterizations of cloud radiative forcing based on observations of air temperature at glacier automatic weather stations. Conversely, the correct definition of overcast conditions is important.