¹ Other applications can be found in Craig, Eriksson, and Niemesh (2019) and Dribe, Eriksson, and Scalone (2019).

² For an overview from an economic history perspective, see Esteves and Mesevage (2019).

³ We use the Hull Domesday Project data (Palmer 2010).

⁴ For a discussion, see De Pleijt, Nuvolari, and Weisdorf (2020).

⁵ These concerns are not new; an early and notable example can be found in Feinstein (1988), whose criticism of Williamson (1985) illustrates the difficulties in constructing reliable and representative occupational pay ratios.

⁶ Our core analysis pertains to male workers only, but we also illustrate that our findings are robust to the inclusion of child and female workers, thanks to the rich coverage of female labor in the industrial census of 1896 (Buyst and Delabastita 2023).

⁷ In an updated version of this chapter, we present a counterfactual estimate of employment and wages under different levels of collusion (Delabastita and Rubens 2023).

⁸ Also, see https://www.historicalmanufacturingcensus.se/.

⁹ Technological leadership in invention is commonly defined as having the highest rate of invention. Another concept, economic or industrial leadership, is commonly defined as having the highest total factor productivity.

¹⁰ City growth is widely used as a proxy for local technological progress when more direct measures are absent.