Associations between maternal salivary testosterone at 36 weeks’ gestation with birth weight and infant weight gain through 6 months of age were examined in a group of 49 healthy, pregnant women and their offspring. The diurnal decline of maternal testosterone was conserved in late pregnancy, and levels showed significant day-to-day stability. Elevated maternal morning testosterone level was associated with lower birth weight Z-scores adjusted for gestational age and sex, and greater infant weight gain between birth and 6 months. Although maternal testosterone levels did not differ by fetal sex, relations were sex-specific such that maternal testosterone had a significant impact on weight for male infants; among female infants associations were nonsignificant. Results highlight the opposing influence of maternal androgens during pregnancy on decreased growth in utero and accelerated postnatal weight gain.

The availability of clinically feasible infant body composition assessment can inform current questions regarding the developmental origins of chronic disease. A strategic approach will facilitate more rapid advancement in knowledge. The objective of this study was to summarize published evidence and ongoing research activity in infant body composition using the PEA POD® infant body composition system. All published studies using the PEA POD® were identified and grouped according to study population and question. All centers with PEA POD® units were invited to participate in an online survey regarding past, current and future PEA POD® use, and results were analyzed using descriptive statistics. The resulting information was used to identify gaps or limitations in existing knowledge, thus highlighting potential research priorities. Twenty-seven published articles were identified and grouped into six research themes. Although the number of infants studied is significant in some areas, interpretation of data is limited by methodological differences. Survey responses were received from 16 of ∼60 centers. Research themes echoed those identified from the published literature. Controlling for or reporting potential confounding variables is essential for understanding infant body composition data. Measurement of health outcome variables would be helpful in identifying associations.

Prenatal events can affect neonatal thymus size and adult immune function. The causal insults are unknown, although fetal nutrient restriction is suspected. We used ultrasound at three time points during pregnancy (14, 19 and 30 weeks) to measure the growth of six fetal dimensions in rural Bangladeshi women participating in the Maternal and Infant Nutrition Interventions, Matlab study. Postnatal ultrasound was used to calculate thymic index (TI) at birth, 2, 6 and 12 m. Of the 3267 women recruited, 2861 participated by providing data at least at one fetal biometry and one TI time point. Patterns of fetal growth were summarized using principal components calculated from fetal dimension z-scores. Random effects regression, controlling for infant size and season of measurement were used to relate these patterns to TI. We found that smaller leg length relative to head circumference, characteristic of head-sparing growth restriction, was predictive of lower TI. This association was significant at all time points but strongest in earlier pregnancy. Each standard deviation increase in leg–head proportion was associated with an increase in TI of ∼5%. We conclude that growth patterns typical of poor fetal nutrition are associated with poor thymic development. The greater strength of this association in the first trimester is consistent with a period of vulnerability during the early ontogeny of the thymus and suggests that preventative intervention would need to be given in early pregnancy.

Preterm birth, low birthweight, intrauterine growth retardation and small for gestational age are birth phenotypes that significantly contribute to life-long morbidity and mortality. This review examines the epidemiologic and biologic evidence of folic acid (FA) as a potential population-based intervention to curtail some adverse birth phenotypic expressions, and by extension, their later physical and neurodevelopmental consequences. We outlined a feto-placental adaptation categorization taking into account how prenatal insults may be encoded in fetal development, the adaptive success of the feto-placental response, and subsequent expression in the health of the fetus. Although there are plausible biological pathways that can be implicated, we found that the epidemiological evidence on the role of perinatal FA nutriture and fetal programming of adverse birth phenotypes is still inconclusive. Because biologic and epidemiological considerations alone do not suffice in deciphering the utility of FA in averting adverse birth phenotypes, we proposed a biopsychosocial model that takes into account multi-layered psychosocial contexts for improving subsequent research studies in this area.

Contemporary clinical practice for the care of the prematurely born babies has markedly improved their rates of survival so that most of these babies are expected to grow up to live a healthy functional life. Since the clinical follow-up is of short duration (years), only limited data are available to relate non-communicable diseases in adult life to events and interventions in the neonatal period. The major events that could have a programming effect include: (1) intrauterine growth restriction; (2) interruption of pregnancy with change in redox and reactive oxygen species (ROS) injury; (3) nutritional and pharmacological protocols for clinical care; and (4) nutritional care in the first 2 years resulting in accelerated weight gain. The available data are discussed in the context of perturbations in one carbon (methyl transfer) metabolism and its possible programming effects. Although direct evidence for genomic methylation is not available, clinical and experimental data on impact of redox and ROS, of low protein intake, excess methionine load and vitamin A, on methyl transfers are reviewed. The consequences of antenatal and postnatal administration of glucocorticoids are presented. Analysis of the correlates of insulin sensitivity at older age, suggests that premature birth is the major contributor, and is compounded by gain in weight during infancy. We speculate that premature interruption of pregnancy and neonatal interventions by affecting one carbon metabolism may cause programming effects on the immature baby. These can be additive to the effects of intrauterine environment (growth restriction) and are compounded by accelerated growth in early infancy.

Exposure to a maternal junk food (JF) diet in utero and during the suckling period has been demonstrated to increase the preference for palatable food and increase the susceptibility to diet-induced obesity in adult offspring. We aimed to determine whether the effects of prenatal exposure to JF could be ameliorated by cross-fostering offspring onto dams consuming a standard rodent chow during the suckling period. We report here that when all offspring were given free access to the JF diet for 7 weeks from 10 weeks of age, male offspring of control (C) or JF dams that were cross-fostered at birth onto JF dams (C-JF, JF-JF), exhibited higher fat (C-C: 12.3 ± 0.34 g/kg/day; C-JF: 14.7 ± 1.04 g/kg/day; JF-C: 11.5 ± 0.41 g/kg/day; JF-JF: 14.0 ± 0.44 g/kg/day; P < 0.05) and overall energy intake (C-C: 930.1 ± 18.56 kJ/kg/day; C-JF: 1029.0 ± 82.9 kJ/kg/day; JF-C: 878.3 ± 19.5 kJ/kg/day; JF-JF: 1003.4 ± 25.97 kJ/kg/day; P < 0.05) than offspring exposed to the JF diet only before birth (JF-C) or not at all (C-C). Female offspring suckled by JF dams, despite no differences in food intake, had increased fat mass as percentage of body weight (C-C: 19.9 ± 1.33%; C-JF: 22.8 ± 1.57%; JF-C: 17.4 ± 1.03%; JF-JF: 22.0 ± 1.0%; P < 0.05) after 3 weeks on the JF diet. No difference in fat mass was observed in male offspring. These findings suggest that the effects of prenatal exposure to a JF diet on food preferences in females and susceptibility to diet-induced obesity in males can be prevented by improved nutrition during the suckling period.

Maternal diabetes has assumed epidemic relevance in recent years and animal studies have provided some evidence that it may cause abnormalities in renal development and a reduction in nephron endowment in the offspring; however, human data are lacking. The renal cortex contains ∼95% of the glomeruli and its volume could be taken as a surrogate measure of glomerular number; based on this assumption, we measured renal cortex volume and in addition, microalbuminuria in a homogeneous sample of 42 children of diabetic (pregestational, n = 13, and gestational, n = 29) mothers, compared with 21 healthy children born of non-diabetic mothers. The offspring of diabetic mothers showed a significant reduction of renal cortex volume and higher albumin excretion compared with controls, possibly attributable to a reduction in the number of nephrons and the difference was statistically significant (P < 0.001). Although further studies on a larger sample are necessary, our preliminary findings suggest that maternal diabetes may affect renal development with sequelae later in life, requiring closer monitoring and follow-up. Furthermore, the importance of strict maternal diabetes management and control must be emphasized.

The developmental origins hypothesis suggests that morbidity and premature mortality arise, in part, from adverse exposures in utero and early in development. Evidence suggests a connection between early nutritional deficits and adult morbidity; however, the effects on mortality have been less well studied and previous studies provide conflicting results. We extracted Finnish birth cohort death rates from the Human Mortality Database. Our test asks whether men or women born during the 1867–1868 Great Finnish Famine exhibited death rates in old age different from expected, based on death rates among Finnish cohorts born 1818–1866. We found no support for the argument that exposure to the Finnish famine in utero induced excess mortality from age 60 to 89 in either men or women. Our results suggest that the Finnish famine did not induce, via epigenetic changes or any other mechanism, premature mortality in older age among exposed individuals.

Little is known about whether exposure of the fetus to alcohol alters pulmonary development or function. This study aimed to determine whether low-moderate ethanol (EtOH) exposure throughout gestation alters structural and non-respiratory functional aspects of the fetal and postnatal lung. Sprague–Dawley rats were fed an ad libitum liquid diet ±6% v/v EtOH daily throughout pregnancy, achieving a plasma ethanol (EtOH) concentration of 0.03%. Gene and protein expression was determined in pulmonary tissue collected from fetuses at embryonic day (E) 20 and adult offspring. The percentage of airspace and alveolar size was measured in pulmonary tissue collected at postnatal day (PN) 1. At E20, EtOH-exposed fetuses had decreased aquaporin 5 mRNA levels and a non-significant trend for decreased epithelial sodium channel type α; expression of other pulmonary fluid homeostatic and development genes and surfactant protein genes were not different between groups. At PN1, there was no difference between EtOH-exposed and control offspring in the distal airspace percentage or diameter. At 8 months, collagen type III α1 gene expression was upregulated in EtOH-exposed male offspring; this was associated with increased collagen deposition at 10 months. At 19 months, male EtOH-exposed offspring had a 25% reduction in the protein levels of surfactant protein B. The alterations observed in male EtOH-exposed offspring suggest chronic low-moderate prenatal EtOH-exposure during development may result in increased pulmonary fibrosis. Such an alteration would decrease the respiratory capacity of the lung.

The in utero origins of breast cancer are an increasing focus of research. However, the long time period between exposure and disease diagnosis, and the lack of standardized perinatal data collection makes this research challenging. We assessed perinatal factors, as proxies for in utero exposures, and breast cancer risk using pooled, population-based birth and cancer registry data. Birth registries provided information on perinatal exposures. Cases were females born in Norway, Sweden or Denmark who were subsequently diagnosed with primary, invasive breast cancer (n = 1419). Ten controls for each case were selected from the birth registries matched on country and birth year (n = 14,190). Relative risks (RRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were estimated using unconditional regression models. Breast cancer risk rose 7% (95% CI 2–13%) with every 500 g (roughly 1 s.d.) increase in birth weight and 7% for every 1 s.d. increase in birth length (95% CI 1–14%). The association with birth length was attenuated after adjustment for birth weight, while the increase in risk with birth weight remained with adjustment for birth length. Ponderal index and small- and large-for-gestational-age status were not better predictors of risk than either weight or length alone. Risk was not associated with maternal education or age, gestational duration, delivery type or birth order, or with several pregnancy complications, including preeclampsia. These data confirm the positive association between birth weight and breast cancer risk. Other pregnancy characteristics, including complications such as preeclampsia, do not appear to be involved in later breast carcinogenesis in young women.

Genetic variants in the FTO (fat mass- and obesity-associated) gene have the highest association of all obesity-associated genes. Its placental expression was shown to relate to birth weight, suggesting that it may participate in the control of fetal weight gain. To gain more insight into the implication of FTO in fetal growth, we measured its placental expression in samples including extremes of abnormal fetal growth, such as after intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) or macrosomia in both rats and humans. In rats, fetal growth was modulated by maternal nutritional modifications. In humans, placental villi were collected from pathological pregnancies (i.e. with IUGR or fetal macrosomia). Placental FTO mRNA expression was reduced by IUGR but was not significantly affected by macrosomia in either rats or humans. Our data suggest that placental FTO may participate in interactions between the in utero environment and the control of fetal growth under IUGR conditions by modulating epigenetic processes.

The assessment of reproductive features (puberty, fertility and prolificacy) in female Iberian pigs indicates that exposition to intrauterine maternal malnutrition, either by deficiency or excess, is associated with juvenile obesity and a significantly earlier age of puberty onset. At adulthood, prenatal exposition to undernutrition affects reproductive outputs by diminishing prolificacy, an effect that was not found in females exposed to prenatal overnutrition.

Platelet-activating factor (PAF) is a phospholipid with a wide range of biological activities. We studied PAF metabolism and PAF receptor (PAFR) signaling in perinatal ovine lungs to understand PAF's role in transition of the perinatal pulmonary hemodynamics and pathophysiology of persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn. We hypothesized that downregulation of PAF synthesis with upregulation of PAF catabolism by acetylhydrolase (PAF-Ah) in the newborn lung is needed for fetus-to-newborn pulmonary adaptation. Studies were conducted on fetal and newborn lamb pulmonary arteries (PA), veins (PV) and smooth muscle cells (SMC). PAF metabolism, PAFR binding and cell proliferation were studied by cell culture; gene expression was studied by qPCR. Fetal lungs synthesized 60% more PAF than newborn lungs. Compared with the fetal PVs and SMCs, PAF-Ah activity in newborn was 40–60% greater. PAF-Ah mRNA expression in newborn vessels was different from the expression by fetal PA. PAF-Ah gene clone activity confirmed deletion of hypoxia-sensitive site. PAFR mRNA expression by the PVs and SMC-PV of the fetus and newborn was greater than by corresponding PAs and SMC-PA. Q-PCR study of PAFR expression by the SMC-PV of both groups was greater than SMC-PA. Fetal SMCs bound more PAF than the newborn SMCs. PAFR antagonist, CV-3988, inhibited PAFR binding and DNA synthesis by the fetal SMCs, but augmented binding and DNA synthesis by newborn cells. We show different PAF–PAFR mediated effects in perinatal lungs, suggesting both transcriptional and translational regulation of PAF-Ah and PAFR expression in the perinatal lamb lungs. These indicate that the downregulation of PAF-mediated effects postnatally protects against persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn.

The associations between school performance and cognitive abilities with birth characteristics have mostly been studied without taking into consideration the effects of gestational age (GA). Our aim was to study the association between prenatal growth and cognitive function in term-born Chilean school children. A cohort of over 200,000 term-born fourth graders who took the regular national test for school performance was studied. Outcome parameters were language and mathematics test scores in relation to prenatal growth. A total of 256,040 subjects took the test and 220,940 were included in the final study sample. Prenatal growth was modestly, but significantly, associated with school performance. Adjusted β coefficients for 1 cm increase in birth length were 1.28 and 0.77 for mathematics and language, respectively; the corresponding values for 100 g increase in birth weight were 0.59 and 0.34, respectively. Increased GA was associated with lower test scores. Adjusted β coefficients for the birth measurements generally had a lower strength of association than those of socio-economic factors. However, the confounders most strongly associated with educational achievements were socio-economic factors, known to be associated with birth size. Lower socio-economic status is known to negatively influence both prenatal growth and cognitive function, supporting the overall importance of prenatal growth in relation to cognitive outcomes.

Intrauterine growth-restricted (IUGR) offspring are at increased risk of adult obesity, as a result of changes in energy balance mechanisms. We hypothesized that impairment of hypothalamic insulin signaling contributes to hyperphagia in IUGR offspring. Study pregnant dams were 50% food restricted from days 10 to 21 to create IUGR newborns. At 5 weeks of age, food intake was measured following intracerebroventricular (icv) injection of vehicle or insulin (10 mU) in control and IUGR pups. At 6 weeks of age, with pups in fed or fasted (48 h) states, pups received icv vehicle or insulin after which they were decapitated, and hypothalamic arcuate (ARC) nucleus dissected for RNA and protein expression. IUGR rats consumed more food than controls under basal conditions, consistent with upregulated ARC phospho AMP-activated protein kinase (pAMPK) and neuropeptide Y (NPY). Insulin acutely reduced food intake in both control and IUGR rats. Consistent with anorexigenic stimulation, central insulin decreased AMP-activated protein kinase and NPY mRNA expression and increased proopiomelanocortin mRNA expression and pAkt, with significantly reduced responses in IUGR as compared with controls. Despite feeding, IUGR offspring exhibit a persistent state of orexigenic stimulation in the ARC nucleus and relative resistance to the anorexigenic effects of icv insulin. These results suggest that impaired insulin signaling contributes to hyperphagia and obesity in IUGR offspring.

This study determined the effect of chronic intrauterine hypoxia on collagen deposition in the fetal sheep heart. Moderate or severe hypoxia was induced by placental embolization in chronically catheterized fetal sheep for 15 days starting at gestational day 116 ± 2 (term ∼147 days). The fetal right and left ventricle were evaluated for collagen content using a Sirius red dye and for changes in signaling components of pathways involved in collagen synthesis and remodeling using quantitative polymerase chain reaction and Western blot. In severely hypoxic fetuses (n = 6), there was a two-fold increase (P < 0.05) in the percentage staining for collagen in the right ventricle, compared with control (n = 6), whereas collagen content was not altered in the moderate group (n = 4). Procollagen I and III mRNA levels were increased in the right ventricle, two-fold (P < 0.05) and three-fold (P < 0.05), respectively, in the severe group relative to control. These changes were paralleled by a two-fold increase (P < 0.05) in mRNA levels of the pro-fibrotic cytokine, transforming growth factor β (TGF-β1), in the right ventricle. In the right ventricle, the mRNA levels of matrix metalloproteinase 2 (MMP-2) and its activator, membrane-type MMP (MTI-MMP) were increased five-fold (P = 0.06) and three-fold (P < 0.05), respectively, relative to control. Protein levels of TGF-β were increased in the left ventricle (P < 0.05). Thus, up-regulated collagen synthesis leading to increased collagen content occurs in the chronically hypoxic fetal heart and may contribute to the right ventricular diastolic and systolic dysfunction reported in human intrauterine growth restriction fetuses.

Renin is essential for renal development and in adult kidneys vitamin D deficiency increases renin gene expression. We aimed to determine whether maternal vitamin D deficiency upregulates fetal renal renin expression, and if this is sustained. We also examined growth and the long-term renal effects in offspring on a normal diet. Female Sprague–Dawley rats in UVB-free housing were fed either vitamin D deficient chow (DEF) or normal chow from 4 weeks and mated with vitamin D replete males at 10 weeks. Fetuses were collected at E20 or dams littered and the pups were weaned onto normal chow. Kidney mRNA levels for renin, (pro)renin receptor [(P)RR], transforming growth factor β 1 (TGF-β1), and nephrin were determined in E20 fetuses and in male offspring at 38 weeks. Renal function was assessed at 33 weeks (24 h, metabolic cage) in both sexes. Renal mRNA expression was upregulated for renin in fetuses (P < 0.05) and was almost doubled in adult male offspring from DEF dams (P < 0.05). Adult males had reduced creatinine clearance, solute excretion and a suppressed urinary sodium-to-potassium ratio (P < 0.05). Female adult DEF offspring drank more and excreted more urine (P < 0.05) but creatinine clearance was not impaired. We conclude that maternal vitamin D depletion upregulates fetal renal renin gene expression and this persists into adulthood where, in males only, there is evidence of sodium retention and compromised renal function. Importantly these effects occurred despite the animals being on a normal diet from the time of weaning onwards.

Maternal pre-pregnancy obesity has been linked with an increased risk for negative emotionality and inattentiveness in offspring in early childhood. The aim of this study was to examine the association between maternal pre-pregnancy body mass index (BMI) and the development of affective problems (dysthymic disorder, major depressive disorder) throughout childhood and adolescence. In the Western Australian Pregnancy Cohort (Raine) Study, 2900 women provided data on their pre-pregnancy weight, and height measurements were taken at 18 weeks of gestation. BMI was calculated and categorized using standardized methods. Live-born children (n = 2868) were followed up at ages 5, 8, 10, 14 and 17 years using the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-oriented scales of the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL/4–18). Longitudinal models were applied to assess the relationships between maternal pre-pregnancy BMI and affective problems from age 5 through 17. There was a higher risk of affective problems between the ages of 5 and 17 years among children of women who were overweight and obese compared with the offspring of women in the healthy pre-pregnancy weight range (BMI 18.5–24.99) after adjustment for confounders, including paternal BMI. Maternal pre-pregnancy overweight and obesity may be implicated in the development of affective problems, including depression, in their offspring later in life.