Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-zzh7m Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-26T03:00:48.580Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The Confrontation between Fidelity and Fertility: Nüshu, Nüge, and Peasant Women's Conceptions of Widowhood in Jiangyong County, Hunan Province, China

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  26 March 2010

Fei-Wen Liu
Get access

Extract

These words were expressed by Gangzhen and Cizhu, two peasant women born in the early twentieth century who lived in two villages in Jiangyong County of Hunan Province in southern China. When confronted with the loss of their husbands, these women relied on local tools familiar to women in this area—nüge and nüshu—to articulate their thoughts and emotions. Nüge (literally, “female song”), which includes bridal laments and folk narratives, was widely practiced among peasant women in southern China, especially prior to the Liberation of 1949. Nüshu (“female writing”), in contrast, was used extensively by peasant women in Jiangyong. Moreover, it is one of the very few writing systems in the world that is mostly illegible to men. This male-illegible script,3 which is semiphonetic compared to the ideographs of Chinese hanzi,4 was used for centuries among hanzi-illitetate women, but it remained basically undocumented and unknown to the outside world until the 1980s, just as it was becoming extinct. Prior to Liberation, Jiangyong women had used nüshu to write sisterhood letters, biographic laments, wedding literature, folk stories, and other narratives in verse form. Combined with nüge, they documented peasant women's experiences and gave voices to their existence.

Type
Articles
Information
The Journal of Asian Studies , Volume 60 , Issue 4 , November 2001 , pp. 1051 - 1084
Copyright
Copyright © The Association for Asian Studies, Inc. 2001

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

List of References

Abu-Lughod, Lila. 1986. Veiled Sentiments. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Appadurai, Arjun. 1990. “Topographies of the Self: Praise and Emotion in Hindu India.” In Language and Politics of Emotion, edited by Lutz, Catherine A. and Abu-Lughod, Lila. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Bernhardt, Kathryn. 1996. “A Ming-Qing Transition in Chinese Women's History? The Perspective from Law.” In Remapping China: Fissures in Historical Terrain, edited by Hershatter, Gail et al. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Bernhardt, Kathryn. 1999. Women and Property in China, 960–1949. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Birge, Bettine. 1995. “Levirate Marriage and the Revival of Widow Chastity in Yuan China.” Asia Major 8(2): 107–6.Google Scholar
Blake, C.Fred, . 1978. “Death and Abuse in Marriage Laments: The Curse of Chinese Brides.” Asian Folklore Studies 37(1): 13—33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bray, Francesca. 1997. Technology and Gender: Fabrics of Power in Late Imperial China. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brenneis, Donald. 1987. “Performing Passions: Aesthetics and Politics in an Occasionally Egalitarian Community.” American Ethnologist 14(2): 236–50.Google Scholar
Briggs, Charles L., and Bauman, Richard. 1995. “Genre, Intertextuality, and Social Power.” In Language, Culture, and Society, edited by Blount, Ben G.. Prospect Heights, Illinois: Waveland Press, Inc.Google Scholar
Carlitz, Katherine. 1991. “The Social Uses of Female Virtue in Late Ming Editions of Lienü Zhuan.” Late Imperial China 12(1): 117–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carlitz, Katherine. 1994. “Desire, Danger, and the Body: Stories of Women's Virtue in Late Ming China.” In Engendering China: Women, Culture, and the State, edited by Gilmartin, Christina K. et al. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Carlitz, Katherine. 1997. “Shrines, Governing-Class Identity, and the Cult of Widow Fidelity in Mid-Ming Jiangnan.” Journal of Asian Studies 56(3): 612–640.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chang, Bangwei. 1989. Hunyinyu shehui: songdai (Marriage and society: the Song dynasty). Sichuan: Sichuan renmin chubanshe.Google Scholar
Chang, Bincun. 1999. “Mingqing shiqi guafu shoujie de fengqi—lixing xuanze de wenti” (Widow chastity in the Ming-qing period—the issue of rational choice). Xinshixue 10(2): 29–76.Google Scholar
Chang, Kang-I Sun, and Saussy, Haun. 2000. Women Writers in Traditional China: An Anthology of Poetry and Criticism. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Chen, Dongyuan. [1928]. 1977. Zhongguo funü shenghuo shi (The history of Chinese women). Taipei: Commercial Press.Google Scholar
Chen, Jiexian. 1990. “Cong jinshi fangzhixue de fazhan kan shibian yu xueshu” (The transformation of modern gazetteer historiography and the change in worldviews and academia). Gugong xueshu jikan 8(1): 1—18.Google Scholar
Chen, Ju, ed. 1992. Nüzi mengdu xinbian (The new collection of female educational texts). Guangxi: Guangxi renmin chubanshe.Google Scholar
Chen, Qiguang. 1992. “Hanzi de you yige fenzhi—nüzi” (Another branch of Han Chinese—the female script). Zhongyang minzu xueyuan xuebao 5: 77–82, 76.Google Scholar
Chen, Qiguang. 1993. “Nüzi yu hanzi” (Female script and Han script). Hanxue yanjiu 11(2): 251–258.Google Scholar
Chen, Qiguang. 1995. “Nüzi de chansheng he xingzhi” (The origins and characteristics of nüshu). In Qite de nüshu (The unique nüshu), edited by Liming, Zhao et al. Beijing: Beijing yuyan xueyuan chubanshe.Google Scholar
Chiang, William. 1995. We Two Know the Script; We Have Become Good Friends. Lanham: University Press of America, Inc.Google Scholar
Clifford, James, and Marcus, George E.. 1986. Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Cohen, Myron L. 1976. House United, House Divided: The Chinese Family in Taiwan. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Dennerline, Jerry. 1986. “Marriage, Adoption, and Charity in the Development of Lineages in Wu-hsi from Sung to Ch'ing.” In Kinship Organization in Late Imperial China, edited by Ebrey, Patricia and Watson, James. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Dong, Jiazun. [1937]. 1979. “Lidai jielie funü de tongji” (The statistics on faithful and martyred women in history). Xiandai shixue 3(2): 1—5. Reprinted in Zhongguo funü shi lunji (The collection of essays on the history of Chinese women), edited by Bao Jialing. Taipei: Daoxiang chubanshe.Google Scholar
Ebrey, Patricia. 1993. The Inner Quarters: Marriage and the Lives of Chinese Women in the Sung Period. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Ebrey, Patricia, and Watson, James L., eds. 1986. Kinship Organization in Late Imperial China, 1000—1940. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Elvin, Mark. 1984. “Female Virtue and the State in China.” Past and Present 104: 111–52.Google Scholar
Endō, Orie. 1995. “95 Nen Chūgoku onnamoji chōsa hōkoku” (The 1995 survey on female script). Kotoba 16: 128—36.Google Scholar
Endō, Orie. 1996. Chūgoku no onnamoji (Chinese female script). Japan: Sanichi Syobō.Google Scholar
Fei, Ciyan. 1998. You dianfan dao guifan (Between paradigm and norm). Taipei: Guoli Taiwan daxue chuban weiyuanhui.Google Scholar
Feld, Steven. 1990. “Wept Thoughts: The Voicing of Kaluli Memories.” Oral Tradition 5(2–3): 241–66.Google Scholar
Furth, Charlotte. 1992. “Poetry and Women's Culture in Late Imperial China: Editor's Introduction.” Late Imperial China 13(1): 1–8.Google Scholar
Gal, Susan. 1989. “Language and Political Economy.” Annual Review of Anthropology 18: 345–67.Google Scholar
Gong, Zhebing. 1991. Nüshu: shijie weiyi de nüxing wenzi (Nüshu: the unique female script in the world). Taipei: Fumi xinzhi.Google Scholar
Gong, Zhebing, and Shuoyi, Zhou. 1986. “Nanchu qishu: nüshu” (The unique writing in southern Chu: nüshu). In Funü wenzi he yaozu qianjiadong (Women's script and Yao's Qianjiadong). edited by Zhebing, Gong. Beijing: Zhongguo zhanwang chubanshe.Google Scholar
Holmgren, Jennifer. 1985. “The Economic Foundations of Virtue: Widow-Remarriage in Early and Modern China.” The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs 13: 1–27.Google Scholar
Holmgren, Jennifer. 1986. “Observations on Marriage and Inheritance Practices in Early Mongol and Yuan Society, with Particular Reference to the Levitate.” Journal of Asian History 20: 127–92.Google Scholar
Hu, Pu'an. [1933.] 1976. Zhonghua quanguo fengsu zhi (The gazetteer of Chinese customs). Taipei: Orient Culture Service.Google Scholar
Huang, Xuezhen. 1993. Jiangyong fangyan yanjiu (The research on Jiangyong dialect). Beijing: Shehui kexue wenxian chubanshe.Google Scholar
Jaschok, Maria. 1988. Concubines and Bondservants: The Social History of a Chinese Custom. London: Zed Books.Google Scholar
Jiangyong xianzhi (gazetteer, Jiangyong). 1995. Wu Duolu comp. Beijing: Fangzhi chubanshe.Google Scholar
Johnson, David. 1985. “Communication, Class, and Consciousness in Late Imperial China.” In Popular Culture in Late Imperial China, edited by Johnson, David et al. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Johnson, Elizabeth L. 1988. “Grieving for the Dead, Grieving for the Living: Funeral Laments of Hakka Women.” In Death Ritual in Late Imperial and Modern China, edited by Watson, James L. and Rawski, Evelyn S.. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Judd, Ellen R. 1989. “Niangjia: Chinese Women and Their Natal Families.” Journal of Asian Studies 48(3): 525–4.Google Scholar
Kligman, Gail. 1988. The Wedding of the Dead: Ritual, Poetics, and Popular Culture in Transylvania. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Ko, Dorothy. 1994. Teachers of the Inner Chambers: Women and Culture in Seventeenth-Century. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Lau, Nap Yan. 1991. “Qiantan Songdai funü de shoujie yu zaijia” (A preliminary survey of the Song women's widowhood and remarriage). Xinshixue 2(4): 37–76.Google Scholar
Leung, Angela Ki Che. 1993 “To Chasten Society: The Development of Widow Homes in the Qing, 1773–1911.” Late Imperial China 14(2): 1–32.Google Scholar
Lin, Huixiang. 1964. “Cong changzhu niangjia fengsu de qiyuan ji muxizhi dao fuxizhi de guodu” (The origin of prolonged residence in the natal family as a transition from matrilineality to patrilineality). Xiamen daxue xuebao (4): 24–44.Google Scholar
Liu, Fei-Wen. 1997. “Women Who De-silence Themselves: Male-Illegible Literature (Nüshu) and Female-Specific Songs (Nüge) in Jiangyong County, Hunan Province, China.” Ph.D. diss., Syracuse University.Google Scholar
Liu, Fei-Wen. 1999. “Cong ‘yiqing weiyi’ dao ‘yiyou jingzhuan’: nüshu yu ‘su kelian’” (From “regarding sentiments as statements” to “regarding the meaning of sentiment as context-dependent”). Paper presented at Emotions and Sentiments Workshop, June, Academia Sinica, Taipei.Google Scholar
Liu, Fei-Wen. 2000. “Locating Unrepresented Female Identities: The Performance of Female-Specific Wedding Literature in Southern China.” Paper presented at the annual meetings of American Folklore Society, October, Columbus, Ohio, USA.Google Scholar
Liu, Jihua. [1934]. 1991. “Zhongguo zhenjie guannian de lishi yanbian” (The historical evolution of the concept of chastity in China). Shehui xuejie 8: 19—35. Reprinted in Funü fengsu kao (An examination of women's customs), edited by Gao Hongxing et al. Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi.Google Scholar
Liu, Shouhua, and Hu, Xiaoshen. 1994. “Folk Narrative Literature in Chinese Nüshu: An Amazing New Discovery.” Asian Folklore Studies 53: 307–18.Google Scholar
Lu, Sheldon Hsiao-Peng. 1994. From Historicity to Fictionality: The Chinese Poetics of Narrative. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Mann, Susan. 1987. “Widows in the Kinship, Class, and Community Structures of Qing Dynasty China.” Journal of Asian Studies 46(1): 37–55.Google Scholar
Mann, Susan. 1991. “Grooming a Daughter for Marriage: Brides and Wives in the Mid-Ch'ing Period.” In Marriage and Inequality in Chinese Society, edited by Watson, Rubie S. and Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Mann, Susan. 1994a. “Learned Women in the Eighteenth Century.” In Engendering China: Women, Culture, and the State, edited by Gilmartin, Christina K. et al. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Mann, Susan. 1994b. “The Education of Daughters in the Mid-Ch'ing Period.” In Education and Society in Late Imperial China, 1600—1900, edited by Elman, Benjamin and Woodside, Alexander. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Mann, Susan. 1997. Precious Records: Women in China's Long Eighteenth Century. Stanford: Stanford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mclaren, Anne. 1996. “Women's Voices and Textuality: Chastity and Abduction in Chinese Nüshu Writing.” Modern China 22(4): 382–416.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ming shilu (The veritable records of the Ming dynasty [1368—1644]). 1966. Taipei: Academia Sinica.Google Scholar
Mo, Fei, and Duo, Chen. 1992. “Shilun zhuangzu buluofujia hunsu de geyao” (The folksongs regarding the delayed patrilocal residence among the Zhuang). In Lingnan wenhua yu baiyue minfeng (Lingnan culture and Baiyue customs), edited by Guanpin, Nong and Wei, Guo. Guangxi: Guangxi jiaoyu.Google Scholar
Ochs, Elinor, and Capps, Lisa. 1996. “Narrating the Self.” Annual Review of Anthropology 25: 19–3.Google Scholar
Ocko, Jonathan. 1991. “Women, Property, and Law in the People's Republic of China.” In Marriage and Inequality in Chinese Society, edited by Watson, Rubie S. and Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Pruitt, Ida. 1967. A Daughter of Han. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Robertson, Maureen. 1992. “Voicing the Feminine: Constructions of the Gendered Subject in Lyric Poetry by Women of Medieval and Late Imperial China.” Late Imperial China 13(1): 63—110.Google Scholar
Sangren, P. Steven, . 1983. “Female Gender in Chinese Religious Symbols: Kuan Yin, Ma Tsu, and the ‘Eternal Mother.’” Signs 9(1): 4—25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sankar, Andrea. 1984. “Spinster Sisterhoods.” In Lives: Chinese Working Women, edited by Sheridan, Mary and Salaff, Janet W.. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Scott, James. 1985. Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance. New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Silber, Cathy. 1994. “From Daughter to Daughter-in-Law in the Women's Script of Southern Hunan.” In Engendering China: Women, Culture, and the State, edited by Gilmartin, Christina K. et al. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Silber, Cathy. 1995. “Niishu (Chinese Women's Script) Literacy and Literature.” Ph.D. diss., University of Michigan.Google Scholar
Siu, Helen F. 1990. “Where Were the Women: Rethinking Marriage Resistance and Regional Culture in South China.” Late Imperial China 11(2): 32–62.Google Scholar
Sommer, Matthew. 1996. “The Uses of Chastity: Sex, Law, and the Property of Widows in Qing China.” Late Imperial China 17(2): 77–130.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stockard, Janice E. 1989. Daughters of the Canton Delta: Marriage Patterns and Economic Strategies in South China, 1860–1930. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Sui shu (The history of Sui dynasty). 1974. Taipei: Dingwen shuju.Google Scholar
Tan, Daxian. 1990. Zhongguo hunjia yishi geyao yanjiu (Research on Chinese wedding ritual songs). Taipei: Taiwan Commercial Press.Google Scholar
Tang, Gongwei. 1995. “Shangjiangxu de fumi wenzi” (Women's script in Shangjiangxu). In Qite de nüshu (The unique female literature), edited by Liming, Zhao et al. Beijing: Beijing yuyan xueyuan chubanshe.Google Scholar
Ju-K'ang, T'ien. 1988. Male Anxiety and Female Chastity: A Comparative Study of Chinese Ethical Values in Ming-Ch'ing Times. Leiden: E. J. Brill.Google Scholar
Topley, Marjorie. 1975. “Marriage Resistance in Rural Kwangtung.” In Women in Chinese Society, edited by Wolf, Margery and Witke, Roxane. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Visweswaran, Kamala. 1997. Fictions of Feminist Ethnography. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
Waltner, Ann. 1981. “Widow and Remarriage in Ming and early Qing China. “In Women in China: Current Directions in Historical Scholarship, edited by Guisso, Richard W. and Johannesen, Stanley. Youngstown, N.Y.: Philo Press.Google Scholar
Waltner, Ann. 1990. Getting an Heir: Adoption and the Construction of Kinship in Late Imperial China. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press.Google Scholar
Wang, Chengquan. 1993. “Zhongguo ge minzu buluofujia hunsu de bijiao yanjiu” (A comparative study of delayed patrilocal residences among various Chinese ethnic groups). Minzu yanjiu 6: 41–51.Google Scholar
Watson, James. 1982. “Chinese Kinship Reconsidered: Anthropological Perspective on Historical Research.” The China Quarterly 92: 589–622.Google Scholar
Watson, Rubie S. 1986. “The Named and the Nameless: Gender and Person in Chinese Society.” American Ethnologist 13(4): 619–31.Google Scholar
Watson, Rubie S. 1991. “Wives, Concubines, and Maids: Servitude and Kinship in the Hong Kong Region, 1900–1940.” In Marriage and Inequality in Chinese Society, edited by Watson, Rubie S. and Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Watson, Rubie S. 1994. “Girls’ Houses and Working Women: Expressive Culture in the Pearl River Delta, 1900—1941.” In Women and Chinese Patriarchy: Submission, Servitude and Escape, edited by Jaschok, Maria and Miers, Suzanne. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press.Google Scholar
Watson, Rubie S. 1996. “Chinese Bridal Laments: The Claims of a Dutiful Daughter.” In Harmony and Counterpoint: Ritual Music in Chinese Context, edited by Yung, Bell et al. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
White, Hayden. 1987. The Content of the Form: Narrative Discourse and Historical Representation. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Widmer, Ellen. 1989. “The Epistolary World of Female Talent in Seventeenth-Century China.” Late Imperial China 10(2): 1—43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Widmer, Ellen, and Chang, Kang-I Sun. 1997. Writing Women in Late Imperial China. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Will, Pierre-Etienne. 1985. “Local Gazetteers as a Source for the Study of Long-Term Economic Change in China: Opportunities and Problems.” Hanxue yanjiu 3(2): 707–38.Google Scholar
Wolf, Arthur P. 1968. “Adopt a Daughter-in-Law, Marry a Sister: A Chinese Solution to the Problem of the Incest Taboo.” American Anthropologist 70(5): 846–74.Google Scholar
Wolf, Arthur P. 1981. “Domestic Organization.” In The Anthropology of Taiwanese Society, edited by Ahern, Emily M. and Gates, Hill. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Wolf, Arthur, and Huang, Chieh-Shan. 1980. Marriage and Adoption in China, 1845–1943 Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Wolf, Margery. 1972. Women and the Family in Rural Taiwan. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Wolf, Margery. 1992. A Thrice-Told Tale: Feminism, Postmodernism, and Ethnographic Responsibility. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Xie, Zhiming. 1990. “Lun nüshu wenzi tixi de xingzhi” (On the nature of nüshu writing system). Zhongnan minzu xueyuan xuebao 43: 1—8.Google Scholar
Xie, Zhiming. 1991a. Jiangyong nüshu zhi mi (The myth of Jiangyong nüshu). 3 vols. Henan: Henan renmin chubanshe.Google Scholar
Xie, Zhiming. 1991b. “NüShu zhiyuan buzai kaishu” (NüShu does not originate from kaishu). Zhongnan minzu xueyuan xuebao 48: 98—106.Google Scholar
Xie, Zhiming. 1991c. “NüShu shi yizhong yu jiaguwen you miqie guanxi de Shangdai guwenzi de jueyi he yanbian” (NüShu is an oracle-associated ancient Shang script). Zhongnan minzu xueyuan xuebao 51: 59–65, 73.Google Scholar
Yunsheng, Xue [1905]. 1970. Duli cunyi (Doubts remaining after perusing the substatutes). edited by Jingjia, Huang. Reprint. Taipei: Chinese Materials and Research Aids Service.Google Scholar
Yongming xianzhi (Yongming gazetteer). 1846. Reprint, 1933.Google Scholar
Yongming xianzhi. 1907Google Scholar
Yung, Bell, Rawski, Evelyn S., and Watson, Rubie S., eds. 1996. Harmony and Counterpoint: Ritual Music in Chinese Context. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Zeng, Tiechen. [1935]. 1991. “Qingdai jingbiao zhidu” (The honoring system in the Qing). Zhongguo shehui 1(5). Reprinted in Funii fengsu kao (The examination of women's customs). edited by Hongxing, Gao et al. Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi.Google Scholar
Zeng, Jiwu, ed. 1931. Hunan ge xian diaocha biji (Notes on the investigation of each Hunan county). Hunan: Heji yinshuasuo.Google Scholar
Zhao, Liming. 1992. “Jiangyong jianjie” (An introduction to Jiangyong). In Zhongguo nüshu jicheng (The collection of Chinese female literature). edited by Liming, Zhao et al. Beijing: Qinghua daxue chubanshe.Google Scholar
Zhao, Liming. 1995a “NüShu yu hanzi” (Female script and Han script). In Qite de nüshu (The unique nüshu), edited by Liming, Zhao et al. Beijing: Beijing yuyan xueyuan chubanshe.Google Scholar
Zhao, Liming. 1995b. Nüshu yu nüshu wenhua (Nüshu and nüshu culture). Beijing: Xinhua chubanshe.Google Scholar
Zhao, Liming, and Zhebing, Gong. 1986. “Niizi zaozifa chutan” (Tentative analysis of the generative rules of female script). In Funü wenzi he yaozu qianjiadong (Women's script and the Yao's Qianjiadong), edited by Zhebing, Gong and Liming, Zhao. Beijing: Zhongguo zhanwang chubanshe.Google Scholar
Zhao, Liming. 1990. Nüshu: yige jingren de faxian (Nüshu: an amazing discovery). Hubei: Huazhong shifan daxue chubanshe.Google Scholar
Zhao, Liming et al. 1992. Zhongguo nüshu jicheng (The collection of Chinese female literature). Beijing: Qinghua daxue chubanshe.Google Scholar
Zhou, Shuoyi. 1995. “Wo yu nüshu” (Nüshu and I). In Qite de nüshu (The unique nüshu), edited by Liming, Zhao et al. Beijing: Beijing yuyan xueyuan chubanshe.Google Scholar