The author is grateful to D. L. Sheth and Rajni Kothari whose reactions have structured this paper to a great extent.

¹ The most successful of these is perhaps Weber, Max in The Religion of India: The Sociology of Hinduism, (Glencoe: Free Press, 1958).Google Scholar

² For an informative but blinkered work, see Desai, A. R., Social Background of Indian Nationalism, (Bombay: Popular, 1959).Google Scholar

³ A recent example is Spratt, P., Hindu Culture and Personality, (Bombay: Manaktalas, 1966).Google Scholar

⁴ For an interpretation which generalizes the conflict of identity in this group to the national scene, see Pye, L. W., “The Political Cultures of India and China,” in R. M. Maru and Rajni Kothari (ed.), China and India: Contrasts in DevelopmentGoogle Scholar, forthcoming book. For two historical accounts of the period, see Majumdar, R. C., British Paramountcy and Indian Rennaissance, Part II, (Bomflict bay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1961)Google Scholar; and Mishra, B. B., Indian Middle Classes, (London: Oxford University, 1961)Google Scholar. Of the Syncretist culture of the babus, perhaps the best description is in Shastri, Sivanath, Ramtamu Lahiri O Tatkalin Banga Samaj (1909), (Calcutta: New Age, 1957).Google Scholar

⁵ For a general account of this period, see Majumdar, , op. cit.Google Scholar The last phase of the era has been described by Haridas, and Mukherji, Uma, India's Fight for Freedom or the Swadeshi Movement, (Calcutta: Firma K. L. Mukhopadhaya, 1958)Google Scholar; and Tripathi, A., The Extremist Challenge, (Bombay: Orient Longmans, 1967)Google Scholar. On the varying British response to different social groups in India see Rudolph, L. I. and Rudolph, Susanne H., Modernity of Tradition, (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1967)Google Scholar, Part 2. The Rudolphs also indirectly deal with some of the psychosocial forces which helped initiate the Gandhian phase. Two examples of internalization of Western image of the babus, and the resulting brutal self denigration, in nationalist writers are Bankim Chandra Chatterji, “Babu,” (1873) in Cranthabali, Vol. 1, (Calcutta: Sahitya Parishad, 1958)Google Scholar; and Chatterji, Sarat Chandra, Sreekanta, Part 1 (1917), (Calcutta: G. Chatterji, 1940)Google Scholar. For examples of the same self criticisms ending in an aggressive syncretist stance see Dutt, Madhu Sudan, “Ekei ki Bole Sabhyata,” (1860)Google Scholar and “Buro Saliker Gharhe Ro,” (1860) in Rachanabali, (Calcutta: Sahitya Sangsad, 1967)Google Scholar, and Shastri, , op. cit.Google Scholar, passim.

⁶ The third and fourth stages and idioms they have generated have been studied in great detail. Two papers which deal specifically with political culture are Morris-Jones, W. H., “Behaviour and Idea in Political India,” Spann, R. N. (ed.), Constitutionalism in India, (Bombay: Asia, 1963) pp. 74–91Google Scholar; and Weiner, Myron, “India: Two Political Cultures,” in Pye, L. W. and Verba, S. (ed.), Political Culture and Political Development, (Princeton: Princeton University, 1965) pp. 199–244.Google Scholar

⁷ Samartha, S. J., The Hindu View of his History: Classical and Modern, (Bangalore: Christian Institute for the Study of Religion and Society, 1959)Google Scholar; see brief reviews in W. Rowe, Values, Ideology and Behaviour of Emerging Indian Elites, unpublished monograph, 1964, p. 12; and in Narayan, Dhirendra, “Indian National Character in the Twentieth Century,” The Annals of American Academy of Political and Social Science, 03 1967, 370, pp. 124–132Google Scholar, particularly p. 130.

⁸ Two obvious examples of heightened and almost obsessive consciousness of time are Rammohun Roy and his personal collection of about 150 clocks and Ghandhi and his famous watch. A popular nationalist myth tells how Surendranath Bannerji once threw away his slightly slow-running watch because he was late for a public meeting.

⁹ See Kluckhohn, Florence R., “Dominant and Variant Value Orientations,” Kluckhohn, C., Murray, H. A. and Schneider, D. M. (ed.), Personality in Nature, Society and Culture, (New York: Knopf, 1953) pp. 342–357.Google Scholar

¹⁰ On the traits see Carstairs, G. M., The Twiceborn, (Bloomington: Indiana, 1957)Google Scholar, passim, particularly, pp. 137–169; Taylor, W. S., “Basic Personality in Orthodox Hindu Culture Patterns,” Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 43 (1948) pp. 3–12CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed. The more intuitive and impressionistic approaches are provided by Maughum, W. S., The Summing Up, (New York: Doubleday, 1943)Google Scholar; Chaudhuri, N. C., Autobiography of an Unknown Indian, (London: Macmillan, 1951)Google Scholar; Eliot, T. S., “Burnt Norton,” Four Quartets, (London: Faber and Faber, 1959) p. 13Google Scholar; Priestly, J. B., Man and Time, (London: Aldus, 1964) pp. 171–173.Google Scholar

¹¹ Some examples drawn from different periods of history are: Roy, Rammohun, English Worlds, Vols. 1–7, particularly Vol. 2; (Calcutta: Sadharon Brahmo Samaj, 1947)Google Scholar; Chatterji, Bankim Chandra, op. cit., Vols. 1Google Scholar and 2, particularly, the novel Anandamath (1876–1878), Vol. 1Google Scholar; Vivekananda, Swami, Modern India, (Almora: Advaita Ashram, 1913)Google Scholar. See also more recent attempts in Radhakrishnan, S., Eastern Religions and Western Thought, (London: Oxford University, 1940)Google Scholar; Panikkar, K. M., Hindu Society at Cross Roads, (Bombay: Asia, 1955).Google Scholar

¹² Smith, D. E., India as a Secular State, (Princeton: Princeton University, 1963) p. 40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹³ See Kapp, K. W., Hindu Culture, Economic Development and Economic Planning, (New York: Asia, 1963)Google Scholar, for an interesting discussion of the relationship between concepts of cyclical time resistence to economic growth. See also Goheen, J., Srinivas, M. N., Karve, D. G. and Singer, M., “India's Cultural Values and Economic Development: A Discussion,” Economic Development and Cultural Change, 7 (1958) pp. 1–22CrossRefGoogle Scholar, which deals with the problem of relating such themes to economic growth in general.

¹⁴ Some aspects of these attempts to alter traditional status and the conflicts associated with these attempts have been analysed by Srinivas, M. N., Caste in Modern India and Other Essays, (Bombay: Asia, 1962)Google Scholar; Rudolph, L. I. and Rudolph, Susanne H., “The Political Role of India's Caste Associations,” Pacific Affairs, 33 (1960) pp. 1–22CrossRefGoogle Scholar; see the series of studies in Kothari, Rajni (ed.), Caste in Indian Politics, (New Delhi: Orient Longmans, 1970)Google Scholar; for another indirect reference to this problem in the context of the emerging elites, see Cormack, Margaret, She Who Rides a Peacock.: Indian Students and Social Change, (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1962), pp. 18–19.Google Scholar

¹⁵ For detailed analyses of these Concepts in Western terms, see Zimmer, H., Philosophies of India, (London: Pantheon, 1951)Google Scholar; see also Schweitzer, A., Indian Thought and its Development, (New York: Beacon, 1959)Google Scholar. Brief introductions are provided by Dandekar, R. N., “Brahmanism,” de Bary, W. T. et al. (ed.), Sources of Indian Tradition, (New York: Columbia University, 1958) pp. 1–36Google Scholar; and Hume, R. E., The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, (London: Oxford, 1958) pp. 32–42, 52–57.Google Scholar

¹⁶ Morris-Jones, W. H., op. cit.Google Scholar; Dutta, D. M., “Political, Legal and Economic Thought in Indian Perspective,” Moore, C. A. (ed.), Philosophy and Culture, East and West. (Honolulu: University of Hawaii) pp. 569–593Google Scholar. Advaita Ashram, no date). This is reflected in social interpretation too, see Goheen, et al. op. cit.Google Scholar, and the response to it in Dasgupta, D., Economic Development and Cultural Change, 13 (1964) pp.Google Scholar

¹⁷ Two examples of authoritative attempts at reinterpretation are Aurobindo, Shri, The Life Divine, (Pondycheri: Shri Aurobindo Ashram, 1943)Google Scholar; Vivekananda, Swami, Prachya O Praschatya (1900–1902), (Almora: Advaita Ashram, no date) 100–102Google Scholar. Also Panikkar, , op. cit.Google Scholar and also Dutta, , op. cit.Google Scholar see my “Defiance and Conformity in Science: The Identity of Jagadis Chandra Bose,” forthcoming Bommonograph, for a discussion of the process of reinterpretation as a part of historical adaptation; also Elders, J., “Industrialism in Hindu Society,” Ph.D. thesis, Harvard University, 1959.Google Scholar

¹⁸ Reincourt, , op. cit., p. 9Google Scholar; see also Dandekar, R., Role of Man in Hinduism, (New York: Ronald, 1953)Google Scholar; and Dutta, , op. cit., pp. 574–575Google Scholar. For a more extended discussion of the textual basis of the concept see Hume, , op. cit., pp. 9–69.Google Scholar

¹⁹ Murphy, G., In the Minds of Men: The Study of Human Behaviour and Social Tensions in India, (New York: Basic Books, 1953) pp. 44, 268CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Anand, M. R., Is There An Indian Culture, (Bommonograph, bay: Asia, 1963), p. 80Google Scholar; Carnell, F., “Political Ideas and Ideologies in South and South East Asia,” in Rose, S. (ed.), Politics in Southern Asia, (London: Macmillan, 1963) pp. 261–302Google Scholar; Dutta, , op. cit., p. 575Google Scholar; Bhaskaran, R., Sociology of Politics, (Bombay: Asia, 1967) pp. 57–58Google Scholar; see also my “Defiance and Conformity,” which develops this theme in some detail.

²⁰ Tonybee, A., A Study of History, Vol. 8: The Modern West and the Hindu World, (London: Oxford University, 1954) pp. 580–623Google Scholar; Hay, S. N., “Western and Indigenous Elements in Modern Indian Thought: The Case of Rammohan Roy,” in Jansen, M. B. (ed.), Changing Japanese Attitudes Towards Modernisation, (Princeton: Princeton University, 1965) pp. 311–328Google Scholar. Chaudhuri gives a scintillating, albeit literary, account of this synthetism; see his Autobiography, pp. 178–218Google Scholar; also Tangri, S. S., “Intellectuals and Society in Nineteenth Century,” Comparative Studies in Society and History, 3 (1961) pp. 368–394.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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²² See my “Defiance and Conformity;” E. Shils, “The Culture of the Indian Intellectual,” (Chicago: University of Chicago Reprint, 1959)Google Scholar; Raju, P. T., “Religion and Spiritual Values in Indian Thought,” C. A. Moore, op. cit., pp. 263–292Google Scholar, particularly pp. 282–284.

²³ An example of a Gandhian Islamic scholar articulating the idiom is Azad, A. K., Speeches, 1947–1955, (Delhi: Publications Division, Government of India, 1965) pp. 20–21Google Scholar; also Hussian, Abid, The National Culture of India, (London: 1963)Google Scholar; Radhakrishnan, S. R., op. cit., and East West: Some Reflections, (London: Allen and win, 1955) p. 40Google Scholar. All of them trace the various aspects of Congress consensualism to this linkage, See a brief review in Rowe, , op. cit., pp. 11–14.Google Scholar

²⁴ On the older concept of concensus in the context of a changing society, see Derrett, J. D. M., “The Administration of Hindu Law by the British,” Comparative Studies in Society and History, 4 (1961) pp. 15–16CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Rudolph, L. I. and Rudolph, Susanne H., Modernity of Tradition, (Chicago: Chicago University, 1967) pp. 187–190, 254–268Google Scholar; Wood, E., “Patterns of Influence within Rural India,” in Park, R. L. and Tinker, Irene (ed.), Leadership and Political Institutions in India, (Princeton: Princeton University, 1959) pp. 372–379Google Scholar. For systematic statements of the modernized and politicized versions of an ancient position, see Roy, M. N., Power, Parties and Politics, (Calcutta: Rennaissance, 1960)Google Scholar; and Narayan, J. P., “Organic Democracy,” in Ayar, S. P. and Srinivas, R. (ed.), Studies in Indian Democracy, (Bombay: Allied, 1965) pp. 325–344Google Scholar; for analyses of the role of the theme in party politics see Kothari, Rajni, “Opposition in India,” Robert A. Dahl (ed.), Regimes and Oppositions, (New Haven: Yale University, press).Google Scholar

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³² Mencher, Joan, “Growing up in South Malabar,” Human Organisation, 22 (1963) pp. 54–65CrossRefGoogle Scholar, Cormack, , op. cit., 1961, p. 21.Google Scholar

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³⁴ See the papers in Kothari, R. (ed.), Caste in Indian Politics, op. cit.Google Scholar; also Bailey, F. G., Tribe, Caste and Nation, (Manchester: Manchester University, 1960).Google Scholar

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³⁶ Ibid., particularly pp. 87–97, 112–119.

³⁷ Weiner, M., op. cit., p. 166.Google Scholar

³⁸ Shils, Edwards, “Indian Students; Rather Sadhus than Philistines,” (Chicago: University of Chicago, Reprint, 1961) p. 3.Google Scholar

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⁴³ Roy, Rammohun, op. cit., Vol. 2, particularly pp. 135–189Google Scholar. Roy also explicitly rejected pacifism because he considered it a cause of Hindu degradation.

⁴⁴ Carstairs, , op. cit., passimGoogle Scholar; Koestler, Arther, The Lotus and the Robot, (London: Macmillan, 1960)Google Scholar, Part I.

⁴⁵ See Gandhi, M. K., My Non-Violence, (Ahmedabad: Navajiwan, 1950)Google Scholar; and Bose, N. K., Selections from Gandhi, (Ahmedabad: Navajiwan, 1948)Google Scholar. For two interesting analyses, see Rudolph, Susannc H., “Self-Control and Political Potency: Gandhi's Asceticism,” American Scholar, 35 (1965–1966) pp. 79–97Google Scholar; and Bondurant, Joan, The Conquest of Violence, (Princeton: Princeton University, 1958).Google Scholar

⁴⁶ Morris-Jones, , “Stability and Change,” p. 11Google Scholar; Cormack, , op. cit., pp. 24–25Google Scholar; see also Gandhi, M. K., Hindu Dharma, (Allahabad: Navajiwan, 1950) p. 16.Google Scholar

⁴⁷ Reincourt, , op. cit., p. 51Google Scholar; see also Rowe, , op. cit., pp. 34–36.Google Scholar

⁴⁸ On the relative autonomy of politics from society see Weiner, M., “India's Two Political Cultures,” in Political Change in South Asia, (Calcutta: Firma K. L. Mukhopadhyay, 1965)Google Scholar; “India: Two Political Cultures;” Morris-Jones, , “Behaviour and Idea,”Google Scholar and “Stability and Change;” Srinivas, M. N., Caste in IndiaGoogle Scholar; Eisenstadt, S. N., “Transformation of Social, Political and Culutral Orders,” American Sociological Review, 30 (1965) pp. 659–673CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Smith, , op cit., pp. 57–62.Google Scholar

⁴⁹ Chaudhuri, , Autobiography, pp. 214–215Google Scholar; Schweitzer, A., op. cit.Google Scholar See a review of this argument in Goodwin, W. F., “Mysticism and Ethics: An Examination of Radhakrishnan's Reply to Schweitzer's Critique of Indian Thought,” Ethics, 67 (1956) pp. 25–41CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Brief discussions of this subject are available in Mahadevan, T. M. P., “Indian Ethics and Social Practice,” in C. A. Moore, op. cit., pp. 476–493Google Scholar; also Keith, A. B., The Religion and Philosophy of Veda and Upanishads, (Cambridge: Harvard University, 1925) pp. 584–586Google Scholar; Hume, , op. cit., pp. 58–66.Google Scholar

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⁵¹ On the lack of mutuality and interpersonal distrust, see Chaudhuri, , Autobiography, pp. 212–213Google Scholar; Carstairs, , op. cit.Google Scholar, Chapter 3, particularly.

⁵² Reincourt, , op. cit., p. 400Google Scholar; Panikkar, K. M., A Survey of Indian History, (Bombay: Asia, 1963) pp. 18–20.Google Scholar

⁵³ Mujumdar, , op. cit.Google Scholar, Chapter 1; Mishra, , op cit.Google Scholar, passim.

⁵⁴ John, and Useem, Ruth, The Western Educated Man in India, (New York: Dryden, 1955)Google Scholar; Narayan, Dhirendra, op. cit.Google Scholar; Chaudhuri, , The Continent of Circe.Google Scholar

⁵⁵ Some of the studies which provide empirical basis of the observations made in this section are Carstairs, op cit.; Rudolph and Rudolph, op. cit.; Hitchcock and Mintern, op. cit.