Winter barley was sown by conventional-tillage (CT) and minimum-tillage (MT) cultivation over three seasons. Each cultivation treatment was split so that straw was incorporated into the soil during cultivation in one split, while the other did not receive straw. Aphid occurrences in autumn and incidence of barley yellow dwarf virus (BYDV) in spring were compared. Similar investigations on winter wheat were made over a further three seasons. The method of cultivation affected the number of aphids on barley and wheat plants in autumn and on wheat heads in summer; MT had fewest aphids. Soil incorporation of straw during cultivation had a similar effect. Method of cultivation affected the incidence of BYDV disease, with MT having least infection. Straw-treated cereal plots had fewer aphids and less BYDV than no-straw plots. Aphids and virus reached damaging levels only in the first barley crop. In this season, MT barley had significantly fewer aphids (48% fewer) and significantly less BYDV (71% less) than CT. Straw-treated plots within the CT system had rather similar aphid infestation and BYDV incidence as no-straw plots. Barley grown in the MT system with straw added had significantly fewer aphids (68%) than in the case when no straw was added. Overall, aphids in autumn were significantly fewer on MT relative to CT cereals in three of the six seasons and significantly fewer on straw relative to no-straw plots in two seasons. Aphids on wheat heads in summer were significantly fewer in MT relative to CT plots in one of the three seasons. Aphids on heads were also significantly fewer on straw-treated plots within each system of cultivation in two seasons, while MT wheat with straw had significantly fewer aphids/head than those without straw in one season. BYDV was lower each season in MT barley and wheat when compared with CT crops. These differences were significant for two of the three seasons in which each crop was grown. There was a lower incidence of virus in straw-treated plots than in no-straw plots. This effect was significant for one of the three seasons in which barley and wheat were grown. Plant and tiller density did not differ significantly between MT and CT barley either with or without straw incorporation. Plant density of wheat in autumn was significantly lower for straw-treated plots relative to no-straw plots in one season. Wheat head density was lower for MT relative to CT in one season, while MT with straw had significantly fewer heads than CT plots with straw in two seasons. BYDV significantly reduced grain yield only in 2001/02 when incidence of the disease was high. Grain yield in 2001/02 was 0·95 t/ha (16%) greater for MT barley, due to less BYDV, than for CT. Straw-treated CT barley outyielded no-straw plots by 0·45 t/ha, while the comparable value for the MT system was 0·3 t/ha. The combined effect of MT plus straw had a 1·24 t/ha (21%) yield advantage over CT without straw.

It is concluded that MT cereals sown at the same time as CT crops in autumn have a lower risk of aphid infestation and BYDV infection than CT crops. The soil incorporation of straw further enhances the beneficial impact of MT in reducing aphids and virus.

Reducing greenhouse gas emissions and optimizing energy consumption are important for mitigating climate change and improving resource use efficiency. Strawberry (Fragaria xananassa Duch) crops are a key component of the UK soft fruit sector and potentially resource-intensive crops. This is the first study to undertake a detailed environmental impact assessment of all methods of UK strawberry production. A total of 14 systems with six additional sub-systems grown for between 1 and 3 years were identified. They were defined by the growing of short-day (Junebearer) or everbearer varieties, organic production, covering with polytunnels or grown in the open, soil-grown (with or without fumigation) or container-grown (with peat or coir substrate) and summer or spring planted. Pre-harvest, the global warming potential varied between 1·5 and 10·3 t CO2 equiv/ha/crop or 0·13 and 1·14 t CO2 equiv/t of class 1 fruit. Key factors included the use of tunnels, mulch and irrigation, sterilization of soil with fumigants and the use of peat substrate. Seasonal crops without covers grown where rotation of sufficient length reduced Verticillium (system 4) were the most efficient. System 4a (that did not use mulch) emitted 0·13 t CO2 equiv/t of class 1 fruit. A second or third cropping year in soil-grown systems prolonged the effect of mulch and soil fumigants. Greenhouse gases from system 4 (with mulch) averaged 0·30 t CO2 equiv/t of class 1 fruit after 3 years of cropping compared to 0·63 and 0·36 t CO2 equiv/t after 1 and 2 years, respectively.

The model described simulates the response of a population of broiler breeders to a daily allowance of a feed of specified composition for up to 280 days from sexual maturity. The population is generated using normally distributed values for initial bodyweight, initial body lipid and protein weight, age at first egg, yolk weight constant and ‘aggressiveness’, the latter producing different feed intakes around the controlled mean. Age at sexual maturity for each bird is predicted from bodyweight and from information about rearing lighting programmes. Egg production, clutch patterns, yolk weights, egg component weights, double-yolked eggs, internal laying and soft-shelled eggs are predicted. Body protein growth, including feathers, is assumed to cease at sexual maturity, thus bodyweight changes after maturity are due entirely to accumulation or utilization of lipid.

Energy transactions are expressed in units of effective energy. Protein required for egg production is calculated from the composition of the next egg to be laid and an assumed fixed chemical composition. Assumptions for protein partition rules are that maintenance has highest priority, yolk protein deposition second and albumen protein third. Provided that sufficient energy and nutrients are available, yolk protein deposition is assumed to occur continuously to meet the predicted growth rate, unless inter-clutch intervals exceed 2 days (user defined), when yolk growth ceases. Energy and nutrients (amino acids) for albumen production accumulate in a pool which has some controlling influence over ovulation. If the energy and nutrients in the albumen pool will support the predicted development of the next egg then ovulation will occur, otherwise ovulation is delayed until sufficient energy and nutrients are available. All events are timed within a 24 h day assuming that feeding is at one time in the morning.

The desired feed intake is calculated each day according to the supply of the first limiting energy or nutrient (invariably an amino acid) in relation to potential need. Actual feed intake is either the desired intake or the feed allowance, whichever is the lower. The additional energy required for thermogenesis is taken into account, but not the constraining effects of high temperature or the bulkiness of the food as a constraint to voluntary food intake.

Some shortcomings of the current model are discussed, these being areas suitable for further research on broiler breeder nutrition.

The goal of the present study was to assess the impact of selected soil protection measures on soil erosion and retention of rainwater in a 1·14 km2 watershed used for agriculture in the north-east of Austria. Watershed conditions under conventional tillage (CT), no-till (NT) and under grassland use were simulated using the Water Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP) soil erosion model. The period 1961–90 was used as a reference and results were compared to future Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) scenarios A1B and A2 (2040–60).

The simulations for the NT and grassland options suggested runoff would decrease by 38 and 75%, respectively, under the current climatic conditions. The simulation results suggest that, under future climate scenarios, the effectiveness of the selected soil conservation measures with respect to runoff will be similar, or decreased by 16–53%.

The actual average net soil losses in the watershed varied from 2·57 t/ha/yr for conventional soil management systems to 0.01 t/ha/yr for grassland. This corresponds to a maximum average annual loss of about 0·2 mm, which is considered to be the average annual soil formation rate and therefore an acceptable soil loss. The current soil/land use does not exceed this limit, with most of the erosion occurring during spring time. Under future climate scenarios, the simulations suggested that CT would either decrease soil erosion by up to 55% or increase it by up to 56%. Under these conditions, the acceptable limits will partly be exceeded. The simulations of NT suggested this would reduce annual soil loss rates (compared to CT) to 0·2 and 1·4 t/ha, i.e. about the same or slightly higher than for NT under actual conditions. The simulation of conversion to grassland suggested soil erosion was almost completely prevented.

The selected soil conservation methods maintain their protective effect on soil resources, independent of the climate scenario. Therefore, with small adaptations, they can also be recommended as sustainable soil/land management systems under future climatic conditions.

However, based on the available climate scenarios, climate-induced changes in the frequency and intensity of heavy rainstorms were only considered in a limited way in the present work. As the general future trend indicates a strong increase of rainstorms with high intensity during summer months, the results of the present study may be too optimistic.

Various adaptation strategies are available that will minimize or negate predicted climate change-related increases in yield loss from phoma stem canker in UK winter oilseed rape (OSR) production. A number of forecasts for OSR yield, national production and subsequent economic values are presented, providing estimates of impacts on both yield and value for different levels of adaptation. Under future climate change scenarios, there will be increasing pressure to maintain yields at current levels. Losses can be minimized in the short term (up to the 2020s) with a ‘low’-adaptation strategy, which essentially requires some farmer-led changes towards best management practices. However, the predicted impacts of climate change can be negated and, in most cases, improved upon, with ‘high’-adaptation strategies. This requires increased funding from both the public and private sectors and more directed efforts at adaptation from the producer. Most literature on adaptation to climate change has had a conceptual focus with little quantification of impacts. It is argued that quantifying the impacts of adaptation is essential to provide clearer information to guide policy and industry approaches to future climate change risk.

The aim of the present study was to use data from herds to demonstrate the degree of seasonal influence on litter size at birth in gilts compared to sow parities 2, 3–5 and older (parities ⩾6) in a conventional, open-housing system for commercial pig herds in the northeastern part of Thailand. Data were obtained during a 3-year period from July 2005 to June 2008. The data analysed included observations on 25 835 litters from 8100 sows. Total number of piglets born per litter (TB), number of piglets born alive per litter (BA), proportion of stillborn piglets per litter (SB) and proportion of mummified fetuses per litter (MF) were analysed using a general linear mixed model procedure. The influence of temperature, relative humidity and temperature-humidity index (THI) on TB, BA, MF and SB were also analysed. The meteorological data were merged with the reproductive data and the means of temperature, relative humidity and THI during 115 days before farrowing were calculated and included in the statistical models. The results revealed that sows that farrowed in the hot season had a larger TB and BA than sows that farrowed in the rainy (P<0·001) and cool seasons (P<0·001). The difference of TB and BA among seasons was more pronounced in the gilt litters than the sow litters, insofar as the gilts that farrowed in the rainy season had 0·7 TB fewer than gilts that farrowed in the hot season (P<0·001). By contrast, sows of parities 2, 3–5 and ⩾6 that farrowed in the rainy season had 0·4 (P=0·01), 0·3 (P=0·003) and 0·3 (P=0·02) TB fewer than those that farrowed in the hot season. In the first parity, MF increased from 0·022 to 0·042 when the mean temperature during gestation increased from 26 to 29°C (P<0·001). On average, a reduction of 0·8 TB and 0·7 BA were found when the humidity during gestation increased from 50 to 80% (P<0·001). The influence of THI on TB, BA and SB differed among herds. When THI increased from 71/72 to ⩾81, a decrease of 0·4 TB were observed in herd A (P<0·001) and a decrease of 0·9 TB were observed in herd B (P<0·001), but not in herds C and D (P>0·05). In conclusion, inferior litter size at birth was observed in sows that farrowed in either rainy or cool seasons. High temperature, high relative humidity and/or high THI during gestation significantly reduced the number of total piglets born per litter. The influence of season, temperature, relative humidity and/or THI on litter size at birth was more evident in the gilts than the sows. These data indicated that various strategies to reduce temperature in the open-housing system for pregnant gilts and sows in Thailand are not adequate and the proper housing of pregnant gilts should be emphasized.

There is a very significant, cost effective greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation potential in agriculture. The annual mitigation potential in agriculture is estimated to be 4200, 2600 and 1600 Mt CO2 equiv/yr at C prices of 100, 50 and 20 US$/t CO2 equiv, respectively. The value of GHG mitigated each year is equivalent to 420 000, 130 000 and 32 000 million US$/yr for C prices of 100, 50 and 20 US$/t CO2 equiv, respectively. From both the mitigation and economic perspectives, we cannot afford to miss out on this mitigation potential.

The challenge of agriculture within the climate change context is two-fold, both to reduce emissions and to adapt to a changing and more variable climate. The primary aim of the mitigation options is to reduce emissions of methane or nitrous oxide or to increase soil carbon storage. All the mitigation options, therefore, affect the carbon and/or nitrogen cycle of the agroecosystem in some way. This often not only affects the GHG emissions but also the soil properties and nutrient cycling. Adaptation to increased variability of temperature and rainfall involves increasing the resilience of the production systems. This may be done by improving soil water holding capacities through adding crop residues and manure to arable soils or by adding diversity to the crop rotations.

Though some mitigation measures may have negative impacts on the adaptive capacity of farming systems, most categories of adaptation options for climate change have positive impacts on mitigation. These include: (1) measures that reduce soil erosion, (2) measures that reduce leaching of nitrogen and phosphorus, (3) measures for conserving soil moisture, (4) increasing the diversity of crop rotations by choices of species or varieties, (5) modification of microclimate to reduce temperature extremes and provide shelter, (6) land use change involving abandonment or extensification of existing agricultural land, or avoidance of the cultivation of new land. These adaptation measures will in general, if properly applied, reduce GHG emissions, by improving nitrogen use efficiencies and improving soil carbon storage.

There appears to be a large potential for synergies between mitigation and adaptation within agriculture. This needs to be incorporated into economic analyses of the mitigation costs. The inter-linkages between mitigation and adaptation are, however, not very well explored and further studies are warranted to better quantify short- and long-term effects on suitability for mitigation and adaptation to climate change. In order to realize the full potential for agriculture in a climate change context, new agricultural production systems need to be developed that integrate bioenergy and food and feed production systems. This may possibly be obtained with perennial crops having low-environmental impacts, and deliver feedstocks for biorefineries for the production of biofuels, biomaterials and feed for livestock.

Granule size distribution of wheat starch is an important characteristic that may affect the functionality of wheat products. Light intensity is one of the main factors affecting grain yield and quality. Two high-yield winter wheat cultivars were grown under shade to evaluate the effect of low light intensity after anthesis on starch granule size distribution and starch components in wheat grains at maturity. Shading caused a marked drop in both grain yield and starch yield and led to a significant reduction in the proportion (both by volume and by surface area) of B-type starch granules (⩽9·9 μm), with an increase in those of A-type starch granules (>9·9 μm). This would suggest that the production of B-type starch granules was more sensitive to shading than that of A-type starch granules. It was also found that the proportion by volume of A-type starch granules was significantly increased and that of B-type starch granules was significantly decreased by shading at different grain filling stages, especially at middle and late grain-filling stages. However, shading had little effect on the proportional number of B-type starch granules. The present results suggested that, under dim light conditions, the limited substrate for starch accumulation was mainly partitioned towards hypertrophy (larger granules) not hyperplasia (more) of starch granules.

Six pairs of isogenic lines of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench) were sown in field plots in Montecillo, State of México (2240 m altitude), in 2005 and 2006. Crosses A (♀)×B (♂) were done in each pair. In A-lines, the length of pistil, stigma, style and ovary, as well as the ovary width, were measured. In B-lines, pollen diameter, viability (cytoplasm density) and production were evaluated. Pollen germination and pollen tube growth in the pistils of the A-lines, were quantified in vivo with aniline blue and epifluorescence 18 h after pollination (HAP), while fertilized pistils were counted at 96 HAP. Histological studies on both pollinated and non-pollinated pistils were performed in one male-sterile line. Seed yield, mean-seed weight, seeds per panicle and seed set (SS; seeds/flower/panicle) were determined at harvest. Pollen viability was the variable most related to pollen germination and pollen tube growth. Stigma receptivity was not associated with its morphology. Growth of the pollen tube in stigma, style and ovary was observed in the transmitting tissue 18 HAP, running parallel to the vascular tissue. Yield under chilling field temperatures (minimum average of 6 and 8°C) prevailing during flower development and pollination ranged from 7 to 12 g/panicle. The differences in seed production and SS among A×B crosses did not depend on the amount and viability of pollen.

Nineteen wheat cultivars, released from 1934 to 2000, were grown at two organic and two non-organic sites in each of 3 years (2004–05, 2005–06 and 2006–07). Assessments included grain yield, grain protein concentration, protein yield, disease incidence and green leaf area (GLA). The superiority of each cultivar (the sum of the squares of the differences between its mean in each environment and the mean of the best cultivar there, divided by twice the number of environments; CS) was calculated for yield, grain protein concentration and protein yield, and ranked in each environment. The yield and grain protein concentration CS were more closely correlated with cultivar release date at the non-organic sites than at organic sites. This difference may be attributed to higher yield levels with larger differences among cultivars at the non-organic sites, rather than to improved stability (i.e. similar ranks) across sites. The significant difference in the correlation of protein yield CS and cultivar age between organic and non-organic sites would support evidence that the ability to take up mineral nitrogen (N) compared to soil N has been a component of the selection conditions of more modern cultivars (released after 1989). This is supported by assessment of GLA, where more modern cultivars in the non-organic systems had greater late-season GLA, a trend that was not identified in organic conditions. This effect could explain the poor correlation between age and protein yield CS in organic compared to non-organic conditions where modern cultivars are selected to benefit from later nitrogen (N) availability which includes the spring nitrogen applications tailored to coincide with peak crop demand. Under organic management, N release is largely based on the breakdown of fertility-building crops incorporated (ploughed-in) in the previous autumn. The release of nutrients from these residues is dependent on the soil conditions, which includes temperature and microbial populations, in addition to the potential leaching effect of high winter rainfall in the UK. In organic cereal crops, early resource capture is a major advantage for maximizing the utilization of nutrients from residue breakdown. It is concluded that selection of cultivars under conditions of high agrochemical inputs selects for cultivars that yield well under maximal conditions in terms of nutrient availability and pest, disease and weed control. The selection conditions for breeding have a tendency to select cultivars which perform relatively better in non-organic compared to organic systems.

Estimates of inbreeding effects in a landrace are necessary in order to acquire information on the presence of different types of gene action for important traits. Twelve lines with different levels of inbreeding coefficients (F=0, 0·25, 0·50 or 0·75) were developed from three phenotypically selected families of a winter squash landrace (Cucurbita moschata Duchesne) between 2000 and 2002 in the area of Thermi-Thessaloniki, Greece. During 2003, a field experiment was established at this location to evaluate the lines. The agronomical characters measured were: the number and weight of total commercial fruits, days to first female blossom, seed weight, size of pollen grains and water-stress tolerance. Comparisons were also made of morphological characters, the dry matter, the total soluble solids and the pH of fruits. Lines with inbreeding coefficient F=0·50 were found to have the highest values for most of the measured characteristics. Significant family×inbreeding interactions were found, revealing different trends for the linear, quadratic and cubic components of each family with inbreeding coefficients. Three F=0·50 lines selected from within each representative family were evaluated along with four winter squash landraces from the C. moschata collection of the Greek Gene Bank, during 2004 in the area of Thermi. These F=0·50 lines showed a superior performance of three components contributing to yield, indicating that one generation of selfing improved the agronomic performance maintaining concurrently the substantial characteristics of the landrace.

Drought is the main factor limiting the productivity of crops in Mediterranean areas. The introduction of physiological traits into crops that improve their tolerance to drought is necessary if yields under these conditions are to be efficiently improved. The effect of drought on different gas exchange variables, i.e. net photosynthesis (A), stomatal conductance (gs) and leaf chlorophyll concentration (Chl), and the relationship of these variables with yield were studied in 12 barley genotypes grown under irrigated and terminal drought conditions. The variable most sensitive to water deficit was gs (mean reduction 43% with respect to control conditions), followed by A (mean reduction 34%). The mean reduction of yield by terminal drought was 27%. A significant correlation was seen between these physiological traits and yield. The effect of water deficit on A, gs and Chl was smaller in the breeding lines than in the traditional varieties assayed, in agreement with the results found for yield. These results suggest a potential indirect selection of physiological characteristics in these breeding lines that allow greater tolerance to drought. The response of the different genotypes examined was not homogeneous across all the variables analysed. This variability is important in programmes aiming to obtain drought-tolerant genotypes via the optimization of traits such as those above.

The effect of phosphorus deficiency on yield formation in spring wheat (Triticum aestivum cv. Prointa Oasis) was investigated, focusing on crop growth and dry matter partitioning during the spike growth period (SGP), which is critical for grain number determination. Two experiments combining shading and P deficiency were performed at Balcarce, Argentina (37°45′S). The main treatments were two levels of soil P-availability: low P, a naturally low P fertility soil (7·0 and 5·5 mg Bray extractable P/kg soil, in the first and second experiments respectively) and high P, a P dose that does not limit growth. The sub-treatments were two levels of radiation (shaded and control). Phosphorus deficiency affected yield mainly through the number of grains/unit surface (m2). Differences in grain number/m2 were related to differences in dry weight of spikes/m2, measured 7 days after anthesis, excluding grain weight. The duration of the SGP did not change much as result of P deficiency: 27 days with high P and only 3 days more with low P. Therefore, changes in spike dry weight were mainly due to differences in spike growth rate. In turn, the spike growth rate of all treatments was linearly related to crop growth rate, with little effect of dry matter partitioning to spikes. Finally, differences in crop growth rate between P treatments were mainly determined by the amount of intercepted radiation. It was concluded that P deficiency resulted in a reduction in intercepted radiation during the SGP, thus causing a reduction in grain number and crop yield.

It is predicted that climate change will increase not only seasonal air and soil temperatures in northern Europe but also the variability of rainfall patterns. This may influence temporal soil moisture regimes and the growth and yield of winter wheat. A lysimeter experiment was carried out in 2008/09 with three factors: rainfall amount, rainfall frequency and soil warming (two levels in each factor), on sandy loam soil in Denmark. The soil warming treatment included non-heated as the control and an increase in soil temperature by 5°C at 100 mm depth as heated. The rainfall treatment included the site mean for 1961–90 as the control and the projected monthly mean change for 2071–2100 under the International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) A2 scenario for the climate change treatment. Projected monthly mean changes in rainfall compared to the reference period 1961–90 show, on average, 31% increase during winter (November–March) and 24% decrease during summer (July–September) with no changes during spring (April–June). The rainfall frequency treatment included mean monthly rainy days for 1961–90 as the control and a reduced frequency treatment with only half the number of rainy days of the control treatment, without altering the monthly mean rainfall amount. Mobile rain-out shelters, automated irrigation system and insulated heating cables were used to impose the treatments.

Soil warming hastened crop development during early stages (until stem elongation) and shortened the total crop growing season by 12 days without reducing the period taken for later development stages. Soil warming increased green leaf area index (GLAI) and above-ground biomass during early growth, which was accompanied by an increased amount of nitrogen (N) in plants. However, the plant N concentration and its dilution pattern during later developmental stages followed the same pattern in both heated and control plots. Increased soil moisture deficit was observed only during the period when crop growth was significantly enhanced by soil warming. However, soil warming reduced N concentration in above-ground biomass during the entire growing period, except at harvest, by advancing crop development. Soil warming had no effect on the number of tillers, but reduced ear number and increased 1000 grain weight. This did not affect grain yield and total above-ground biomass compared with control. This suggests that genotypes with a longer vegetative period would probably be better adapted to future warmer conditions. The rainfall pattern treatments imposed in the present study did not influence either soil moisture regimes or performance of winter wheat, though the crop receiving future rainfall amount tended to retain more green leaf area. There was no significant interaction between the soil warming and rainfall treatments on crop growth.

The objective of the current study was to develop, validate and describe a decision support system (DSS) to evaluate cull dairy cow finishing strategies. The DSS was developed within a Microsoft Excel framework. The purpose of a DSS is to assist the process of making accurate and repeatable calculations, assisting the decision on which cull cow finishing strategy is most profitable under individual farm circumstances. The model was based on data from two evaluation experiments including eight finishing strategies in total: ad libitum grass silage (GS); GS+3 kg concentrate (GS+3); GS+6 kg concentrate (GS+6); GS+9 kg concentrate (GS+9); ad libitum grass silage prior to ad libitum spring grass (GS+G); 0·75 grass silage and 0·25 straw prior to ad libitum spring grass (GS+S) and finally grass silage plus 6 kg concentrate dry matter (DM)/cow/day and milked twice daily prior to ad libitum spring grass (EXTLAC). Stochastic budgeting was included in the model to account for variability in key input and output variables on the overall profitability of various finishing strategies. The stochastic input and output variables included in the model were initial carcass value, feed strategy, concentrate cost and final carcass value. Net profit per cow was selected as the output distribution. The mean net profit per cow with the GS, GS+3, GS+6, GS+9, GS+G, GS+S and EXTLAC was €85·3, €73·7, €95·6, €58·5, €158·8 and €186·8 and €283·0, respectively. Profitability for the EXTLAC strategy was stochastically dominant to all other strategies evaluated meaning a higher level of profit and a lower level of risk is associated with the EXTLAC strategy. The optimal strategy of cull cow beef production depends greatly on the prevailing economic environment, purchase and sale price, milk price, feed costs, housing and labour.

Field and pot experiments were conducted to investigate the effects of defoliation on crop performance and the possibility of using defoliation as a method for conserving soil moisture. The study was conducted during 2006–2008, over two growing seasons of winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) in the North China Plain. Three levels of defoliation (mild, moderate and severe) were imposed on winter wheat in the field during the following crop phases and conditions: at heading, at anthesis under water deficit conditions and at anthesis under two or three levels of irrigation. Additional pot experiments with three levels of defoliation under two water regimes were arranged. The results showed that both the intensity of defoliation and the timing of defoliation significantly reduced grain production. Under wet conditions the reduction was over 20%, while under dry conditions the reduction was c. 12%. Yield reduction was greater for defoliation at heading than at anthesis and it was mainly caused by a reduction in kernel weight. Mild defoliation (top three leaves retained) did not affect grain yield. Moderate defoliation (top two leaves retained) slightly reduced grain production. Root length density in the topsoil profile was significantly reduced by severe defoliation at anthesis under wet conditions, but it increased under dry conditions. Dry matter remobilization to grains under moderate and mild defoliation was increased and resulted in a relatively higher harvest index (HI). The photosynthetic rate of the leaves remaining after defoliation was enhanced under all soil moisture conditions. Although defoliation reduced the seasonal water use (ET), the yield reduction was much greater than the reduction in ET under severe defoliation, resulting in lower water use efficiency (WUE). The results show that conserving soil moisture by removing leaves might not be an economic choice. Under the conditions of the present study, the WUE of winter wheat was not improved by defoliation; however, in very dry conditions the reduction in ET by defoliation might help the crop survive.

A series of field and plant growth chamber experiments were conducted in 2006 and 2007 to study how relative humidity (RH), genotypes and nitrogen application rates affect organ temperatures and spikelet fertility rates in rice. It was observed that organ temperatures varied with air temperature, RH, genotype and nitrogen application rate. Increases in RH at constant air temperature and increasing air temperature with a constant RH both increased organ temperatures significantly. Cultivars also exhibited differences in organ temperatures; those cultivars with erect panicles recorded lower organ temperatures than those with droopy panicles under similar climatic conditions. Similarly, cultivars with panicles above the flag leaf had lower temperatures at the panicle when compared to those plants with the panicle below the flag leaf. It was also found that panicle temperature showed a significant negative correlation with both grain filling rate and seed setting rate. Spikelet fertility could be maintained by reducing spikelet temperature under decreasing RH in a high-temperature environment. Panicle fertilizer application rates had a significant effect on the organ and canopy temperatures. The canopy temperature of rice grown with an ample supply of nitrogen was generally cooler than the canopy temperature of a nitrogen-deficient treatment.

Starch is a major component of wheat grain and, to a great extent, determines the grain weight. Starch accumulation in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is closely associated with sink strength. Four winter wheat cultivars, Lumai 21 and Jimai 20 (compact-spike cultivars) and Shannong 1391 and Shannong 12 (loose-spike cultivars) were grown to evaluate the amylose and amylopectin accumulation in both superior and inferior grains (higher and lower individual grain weight, respectively) and the relationship between starch accumulation and sink strength. In general, superior grains showed a higher starch accumulation rate, endosperm cell number and activity of enzymes including sucrose synthase (SS), uridine diphosphorate glucose pyrophosphorylase (UGPP), adenosine diphosphorate glucose pyrophosphorylase (AGPP), soluble starch synthase (SSS) and granule-bound starch synthase (GBSS), and subsequently produced higher starch accumulation and grain weight than inferior grains. Greater differences in starch accumulation and grain weight were found between the two classes of grains for compact-spike cultivars than between those for loose-spike cultivars. These results suggest that the grain sink strength, determined by endosperm cell number and the activity of synthesis-related enzymes, is closely associated with starch accumulation in superior and inferior grains on a wheat spike.

In vitro gas production (GP) of substrate incubated with cow rumen liquor is commonly used to evaluate feed nutritional quality; GP is correlated with organic matter digestibility and metabolizable energy content. The hypothesis tested was that GP differs among liquors of ruminant species and is dependent on the natural dietary intake of the donors. Measurements were of 24 h GP of seven browse species using rumen liquor from a large (cow) and small (sheep) grazer and from a small intermediate feeder (goat). Mean GP for browse with goat liquor (7±2·4 ml per 200 mg substrate) was significantly (P=0·019) higher than that with cow liquor (5±1·9 ml), and GP with sheep liquor (6±1·1 ml) was intermediate, not significantly different from the cow liquor (P=0·197) and the goat liquor (P=0·061). There was a significant correlation in the ranking of the browses between goat and sheep (P=0·013) liquor using a Mantel test with 9999 permutations, which indicated a similar ranking of browses when using rumen liquor of either of these small ruminants. There were trends between both cow and sheep (P=0·096) and cow and goat (P=0·092) liquors. It was concluded that the dietary habits of ruminant species donors may affect in vitro nutritional studies when using rumen liquor.

The Mediterranean region is experiencing unrelenting land-use pressure, largely driven by population growth. Long-term cropping system trials can guide crop and soil management options that are biophysically and economically sustainable. Thus, an extensive cereal-based rotation trial (1983–98) was established in northern Syria, to assess various two-course rotations with durum wheat (Triticum turgidum Desf.). The alternative rotations were: continuous wheat, fallow, chickpea (Cicer arietinum), lentil (Lens culinaris), medic (Medicago spp.), vetch (Vicia sativa) and watermelon (Citrullus vulgaris) as a summer crop. Ancillary treatments were: nitrogen (N) fertilizer application to the cereal phase (0, 30, 60 and 90 kg N/ha) and variable stubble grazing management (zero or stubble retention, moderate and heavy grazing). Both phases of the rotation trial occurred each year. The soil is a fine clay, thermic Calcixerollic Xerochrept. Seasonal rainfall was the dominant factor in influencing overall yields. Rotations significantly influenced yields, being highest for fallow (2·43 t/ha), followed by watermelon (similar to fallow), vetch, lentil, medic and chickpea, and least for continuous wheat (1·08 t/ha). Overall, yields increased consistently with added N, but responses varied with the rotation. The various stubble grazing regimes had little or no effect on either grain or straw yields. While the trial confirmed the value of fallow and the drawbacks of continuous cereal cropping, it also showed that replacing either practice with chickpea or lentil, or vetch for animal feed, was potentially a viable option. Given favourable economics, legume-based rotations for food and forage could contribute to sustainable cropping throughout the Mediterranean region.