Mild cognitive impairment (MCI) is a classification reserved for nondemented elderly individuals at increased risk for future decline to dementia, compared to those with normal cognition. Cognitive tests, particularly those assessing verbal recall, have been found to be useful in the identification of elderly people with MCI. We argue that a variety of motor/psychomotor evaluations are also sensitive to MCI. Motor assessments described as complex correctly categorize normal versus MCI elderly with comparable accuracies to those obtained by cognitive tests. Unlike performance on verbally based cognitive measures, motor-test scores appear to be relatively independent of educational attainment, indicating that the use of certain motor tests may be particularly valuable in the identification of MCI among elderly with widely varying educational backgrounds.

Background: There is little, though growing, interest in the research area of attitudes held among physicians towards disclosing the diagnosis of dementia and Alzheimer's disease (AD), or the current practice on AD disclosure. This study aimed to investigate the practice and attitudes of specialized physicians towards AD diagnosis disclosure in Brazil.

Methods: A questionnaire was devised to survey the current practice and attitudes regarding diagnosis disclosure of AD in Brazil and sent to specialized physicians (170 geriatricians, 300 neurologists and 500 psychiatrists) by electronic mail.

Results: From 970 potential respondents, 181 physicians who usually attend AD patients returned the questionnaire. There were no significant differences between the three specialties regarding the frequency with which they informed patients of their AD diagnosis (p = 0.17). The results revealed that only 44.8% of the physicians would regularly inform the patient of the diagnosis, although 85.6% of these use clear terminology. Despite their usual practice, 76.8% would want to know their diagnosis if they themselves were affected by AD.

Conclusions: Disclosure of AD diagnosis is not common among specialized physicians in Brazil and different factors are involved. In the clinical context, discussion on advantages of diagnosis disclosure can be useful for improving the care of AD patients and their families.

Background: Previous studies have reported an association between executive dysfunction and the ability to perform activities of daily living (ADL)s among older adults. This study aims to examine the association between executive functions and functional status in a cross-section of older adults with varying degrees of cognitive impairment.

Methods: 89 individuals (mean age 73.8 years) were recruited at a memory clinic in São Paulo, Brazil. Subjects underwent evaluation, and were allocated into three diagnostic groups according to cognitive status: normal controls (NC, n = 32), mild cognitive impairment (MCI, n = 31) and mild Alzheimer's disease (AD, n = 26). Executive functions were assessed with the 25-item Executive Interview (EXIT25), and functional status was measured with the Direct Assessment of Functional Status test (DAFS-R).

Results: Significantly different total DAFS-R scores were observed across the three diagnostic groups. Patients with AD performed significantly worse in EXIT25 compared with subjects without dementia, and no significant differences were detected between NC and MCI patients. We found a robust negative correlation between the DAFS-R and the EXIT25 scores (r =–0.872, p < 0.001). Linear regression analyses suggested a significant influence of the EXIT-25 and the CAMCOG on the DAFS-R scores.

Conclusion: Executive dysfunction and decline in general measures of cognitive functioning are associated with a lower ability to undertake instrumental ADLs. MCI patients showed worse functional status than NC subjects. MCI patients may show subtle changes in functional status that may only be captured by objective measures of ADLs.

Background: Despite evidence that early identification of dementia is of growing policy and practice significance in the U.K., limited work has been done on evaluating screening measures for use in primary care. The aim of this paper is to offer a clinically informed synthesis of research and practice-based evidence on the utility, efficacy and quality of dementia screening measures.

Method: The study has three elements: a review of research literature, a small-scale survey of measures employed in three primary care trusts, and a systematic clinical evaluation of the most commonly used screening instruments. The study integrates data from research and clinical sources.

Results: The General Practitioner Assessment of Cognition (GPCOG), the Memory Impairment Screen (MIS), and the Mini-Cognitive Assessment Instrument (Mini-Cog) were found to be brief, easy to administer, clinically acceptable, effective, and minimally affected by education, gender, and ethnicity. All three have psychometric properties similar to the Mini-mental State Examination (MMSE).

Conclusions: Although the MMSE is widely used in the U.K., this project identifies the GPCOG, MIS and Mini-Cog as clinically and psychometrically robust and more appropriate for routine use in primary care. A coherent review of evidence coupled with an indepth evaluation of screening instruments has the potential to enhance ability and commitment to early intervention in primary care and, as part of a wider educational strategy, improve the quality and consistency of dementia screening.

Objective: This study examines the psychometric properties and clinical experience in using the Mandarin translation of the Quality of Life–Alzheimer's Disease (QoL-AD) instrument in Chinese patients with dementia in Singapore.

Methods: A Mandarin version of QoL-AD was established following standard guidelines for transcultural adaptation of QoL measures. The instrument was administered to 70 patient-carer dyads; patients with severe dementia (MMSE < 10) were excluded. Reliability by internal consistency and test-retest, and construct validity by correlating the known domains of QoL-AD with validity measures for the respective domains, was performed. Guidelines for Rating Awareness Deficits (GRAD) measured patients' insight into their deficits.

Results: Three patients were not able to complete the QoL-AD. Internal consistency (Cronbach's α) was high for both patient (0.9) and carer (0.8) QoL-AD ratings, as was test-retest reliability, intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) 0.7 and 0.8 respectively. Correlation of QoL-AD with domain measures was moderate for carer ratings (0.21 < r < 0.51) and poor for patient (−0.17 < r < 0.13). Patient self-rated QoL correlated poorly with, and was significantly higher than, carer-rated QoL. Correlation between patient and carer QoL-AD was stronger in patients with better insight (GRAD 3–4).

Conclusions: The results suggest that while the Mandarin version of QoL-AD can be used reliably in our population, patients' self perceived QoL can be different from carer ratings and from objective QoL measures. The disparity can be attributed to patients' poor insight, denial, fear of “losing face,” normalization and accommodation of standards with aging. The patients' lack of education and seclusion from Western cultural exposure are also contributory.

Background: Group living homes are a fast-growing form of nursing home care for older people with dementia. This study seeks to determine the differences in job characteristics of nursing staff in group living homes and their influence on well-being.

Methods: We examined the Job Demand Control Support (JDCS) model in relation to 183 professional caregivers in group living homes and 197 professional caregivers in traditional nursing homes. Multilevel linear regression analysis was used to study the mediator effect of the three job characteristics of the JDCS-model (demands, control and social support) on job satisfaction and three components of burnout (emotional exhaustion, depersonalization and decreased personal accomplishment).

Results: Demands were lower in group living homes, while control and social support from co-workers were higher in this setting. Likewise, job satisfaction was higher and burnout was lower in group living homes. Analysis of the mediator effects showed that job satisfaction was fully mediated by all three psychosocial job characteristics, as was emotional exhaustion. Depersonalization was also fully mediated, but only by control and social support. Decreased personal accomplishment was partially mediated, again only by job characteristics, control and support.

Conclusion: This study indicates that working in a group living home instead of a traditional nursing home has a beneficial effect on the well-being of nursing staff, largely because of a positive difference in psychosocial job characteristics.

Background: Mild cognitive impairment (MCI) is proposed to describe the transitional stage between normal cognitive aging and dementia. It has had significant impact in the field of dementia research, but it remains controversial whether or not it should be used as a diagnostic category in clinical practice.

Methods: Semi-structured interviews were carried out with international experts (N = 37) in the field of dementia research and practice. These interviews explored the advantages and difficulties of using MCI as a clinical diagnosis.

Results: There is wide variation in the clinical use of MCI. This variation depends on institutional factors and two types of cultural factors: (a) clinical culture, and (b) the “evidential culture” – how research and guidelines figure in clinical practice.

Conclusion: The study shows the importance of combining values-based practice with evidence-based practice in the early diagnosis of dementia.

Objective: Clinical syndromes such as amnestic mild cognitive impairment (MCI) are highly predictive of future development of Alzheimer's disease (AD), but it is not known how many of the individuals that develop the disease can be identified with these syndromes. This study aims to determine how many individuals with AD show detectable symptoms or clinical signs of cognitive deficits three years before diagnosis.

Methods: 152 incident AD cases were identified in a dementia-free cohort of 1417 persons aged 75–95, after three-year follow-up from a prospective population-based study, the Kungsholmen Project. Symptoms of cognitive impairment including the subjective report of memory problems, and cognitive deficits were objectively measured with an extensive neuropsychological test battery at baseline. Incident AD was clinically diagnosed according to DSM-IIIR criteria at three-year follow-up.

Results: Only half of future AD cases reported subjective memory problems three years before diagnosis. More than one-third of incident AD cases did not exhibit detectable deficits in any of the investigated specific cognitive domains. Only 38.3% had both subjective complaints and domain-specific cognitive deficits.

Conclusions: Symptoms and signs currently used to define MCI are not always present in persons who develop AD. Increasing the number of potentially identifiable and treatable preclinical AD cases is unfeasible unless more sensitive subjective and objective markers are identified. Furthermore, as only half of future AD cases report subjective memory problems three years before diagnosis, the number of persons coming to the attention of medical care is limited.

Objective: This paper reviews the key lessons learned from the first published short-term, placebo-controlled trial of a cholinesterase inhibitor for treatment of mild cognitive impairment (MCI).

Methods: The study was a 24-week placebo-controlled trial designed to evaluate the efficacy and safety of donepezil HCl (donepezil) in the treatment of cognitive impairment in subjects with MCI. Primary outcome measures were the NYU Paragraphs Test and the ADCS Clinicians Global-Impression of Change in the intent-to-treat last-observation-carried-forward group.

Results: There was no benefit of donepezil treatment on primary outcome measures (NYU Paragraphs and ADCS CGI-C) in the ITT-LOCF group but positive findings were seen on NYU Paragraphs in the fully evaluable group and in certain secondary outcome measures across both groups.

Conclusions: The results highlight the need for the use of primary cognitive and functional measures that are reliable and sensitive to change in patients with MCI. Measures of episodic memory, psychomotor speed and complex attention were most sensitive in this study. Functional rating scales are needed that measure change in individual subjects' key areas of functional deficit, which typically involve executive aspects of instrumental ADLs. Tolerability can be increased by use of flexible dosing and efficacy is likely to be enhanced by increasing the length of the trial from six to 12 months and by enriching the sample with subjects more likely to decline during the trial.

Background: Our study investigated the readability of printed material about dementia that is offered to patients and caregivers.

Methods: Comparisons of various brochures (at least three standard pages in length) on dementia and related disorders were made using automated measuring by the SMOG readability index grade.

Results: 118 brochures were assessed (25 in English, 93 in German), for which the mean readability was found to be high school/college level as measured by the SMOG readability index (grade 13.6 ± 1.8). No differences in readability were observed between materials produced by pharmaceutical companies and other sources. Furthermore, recently published brochures were not more readable than older ones. Shorter brochures, English brochures and those containing medical facts were easier to read than longer ones, those written in German or brochures primarily addressing psychosocial care/social issues. The sentence length was above the 20 word recommendation in 25% of the brochures. The average font size of the brochure texts was small (mean font size 11.1 ± 1.6 point) with only 25% of brochures having a font size of 12 or more, as recommended.

Conclusions: Written patient information and educational material of more than three standard pages is often published at unsuitably high readability levels using small fonts. Information material about dementia should be designed and tested prior to distribution among patients and caregivers. Future studies should address material shorter than three pages and material for younger caregivers.

Background: Depressive symptoms are frequently observed in older adults with mild cognitive impairment (MCI). However, little is known regarding the cognitive characteristics of this important subgroup.

Methods: We examined executive functions (controlled inhibition) and verbal episodic memory in 33 healthy older adults (control group), 18 older adults with amnestic MCI plus subclinical depressive symptoms (a-MCI/D+ group), and 26 older adults with amnestic MCI but no depressive symptoms (a-MCI group).

Results: Compared to the a-MCI and control groups, patients with a-MCI/D+ showed poor controlled inhibition. Moreover, in verbal episodic memory these patients recalled fewer words than control participants on immediate free, delayed free, and delayed total (free plus cued) recall. Performance on immediate recall suggested a self-retrieval deficit, but delayed performance also revealed the existence of an encoding impairment. In the a-MCI group, participants exhibited normal performance on the executive task, but pervasive memory impairment; the memory deficit concerned free and total recall on both immediate and delayed tasks, suggesting the existence of encoding and self-retrieval disturbances.

Conclusions: This study reveals differences between the pattern of cognitive impairment for a-MCI/D+ and a-MCI subgroups particularly at the level of executive capacities. In terms of memory functioning, the differences between the subgroups were more subtle; more studies are needed in order to better characterize the memory impairment of a-MCI/D+ and a-MCI patients.

A plethora of in vitro and in vivo studies have supported the neuroprotective role of estrogens and their impact on the neurotransmitter systems implicated in cognition. Recent hormonal replacement therapy (HRT) trials in non-demented postmenopausal women suggest a temporary positive effect (notably on verbal memory), and four meta-analyses converge to suggest a possible protective effect in relation to Alzheimer's disease (reducing risk by 29 to 44%). However, data from the only large randomized controlled trial published to date, the Women's Health Initiative Memory Study, did not confirm these observations and have even suggested an increase in dementia risk for women using HRT compared to controls. Apart from methodological differences, one key shortcoming of this trial has probably been the focus on late-onset (postmenopausal) hormonal changes, i.e. at a time when the neurodegenerative process has already begun and without taking into account individual lifetime exposure to hormone variability. Multifactorial models based on an exhaustive view of all hormonal events throughout the reproductive life (rather than on a specific exposure to a given steroid) together with other risk factors (notably genetic risk factors related to estrogen receptor polymorphisms) should be explored to clarify the role of hormonal risk factors, or protective factors for cognitive dysfunction and dementia.

Over 20 years ago the publication of an optimistic report by Summers and colleagues (1986) on the use of the cholinesterase inhibitor tetrahydroaminoacridine (THA/tacrine) to treat patients affected by Alzheimer's disease (AD) started an avalanche of research publications on the use of cholinesterase inhibitors for the symptomatic treatment of the cognitive deficits seen in people with AD. Despite the fact that the Summers et al. study turned out to be very deeply flawed indeed (Division of Neuropharmacological Drug Products, 1991), the juggernaut whose movement it initiated has not yet ceased to roll. Subsequent large studies of tacrine performed on people with carefully diagnosed AD established a plausible methodology for the conduct of clinical studies of drug efficacy in the treatment of AD (Ritchie et al., 2007). These studies suggested that the drug had modest beneficial effects in some patients (Ritchie et al., 2007), and revealed that it had a high rate of adverse effects on the gut (Brodaty, 1996) and liver (Ames et al., 1990).

Background: Preliminary evidence indicates that the quality of the carer-care recipient relationship predicts those carers most at risk from anxiety. Attachment style is related to higher carer burden, psychological morbidity and increased care recipient institutionalization. We tested, for the first time, the hypothesis that carer burden and the coping strategies used mediate a relationship between attachment style and anxiety.

Methods: We interviewed 83 people with Alzheimer's disease and their family carers, originally recruited for a larger community study. Carers filled in a validated measure about their attachment style, the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale, the COPE to measure coping strategies, and the Zarit-Burden interview.

Results: More avoidant attachment (β = 0.28) and less secure attachment (β = −0.32) predicted anxiety. After adding coping strategies to the equation, the relationship with avoidant attachment (β = 0.15) was no longer significant, and that with less secure attachment was reduced (β = −0.23). A well-fitting structural equation model supported our finding that dysfunctional coping mediated the relationship between attachment style and anxiety.

Conclusion: Carers who were less secure or more avoidantly attached reported higher anxiety. Interventions that aim to modify coping strategies have shown promise in reducing carer anxiety. Our finding that coping strategies also appear partially to explain the excess of anxiety among less securely attached carers suggests they are likely to benefit from such interventions.

Background: The aim of this study is to investigate the diagnostic value of perfusion 99mTc-exametazime single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) in the diagnosis of dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) and Alzheimer's disease (AD) in comparison with dopaminergic 123I-2β-carbomethoxy-3β-(4-iodophenyl)-n-(3-fluoropropyl) nortropane (FP-CIT) SPECT imaging.

Methods: Subjects underwent 99mTc-exametazime scanning (39 controls, 36 AD, 30 DLB) and 123I-FP-CIT scanning (33 controls, 33 AD, 28 DLB). For each scan, five raters performed visual assessments blind to clinical diagnosis on selected transverse 99mTc-exametazime images in standard stereotactic space. Diagnostic accuracy of 99mTc-exametazime was compared to 123I-FP-CIT results for the clinically relevant subgroups AD and DLB using receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis.

Results: Inter-rater agreement for categorizing uptake was “moderate” (mean κ = 0.53) for 99mTc-exametazime and “excellent” (mean κ = 0.88) for 123I-FP-CIT. For AD and DLB, consensus rating matched clinical diagnosis in 56% of cases using 99mTc-exametazime and 84% using 123I-FP-CIT. In distinguishing AD from DLB, ROC analysis revealed superior diagnostic accuracy with 123I-FP-CIT (ROC curve area 0.83, sensitivity 78.6%, specificity 87.9%) compared to occipital 99mTc-exametazime (ROC curve area 0.64, sensitivity 64.3%, specificity 63.6%) p = 0.03.

Conclusion: Diagnostic accuracy was superior with 123I-FP-CIT compared to 99mTc-exametazime in the differentiation of DLB from AD.

Background: People with dementia in care homes are at risk of having their views ignored and decisions are often made on their behalf by care home staff and family carers. The aim of this study was to compare the ratings of needs of older people with dementia living in care homes, as assessed by the older person themselves, a family caregiver, and the staff of the care home.

Method: The Camberwell Assessment of Need for the Elderly (CANE) was completed for 238 residents with dementia by care staff. In addition, 149 users and 81 family caregivers also completed the assessment of the person's met and unmet needs.

Results: Many users were able to report their met and unmet needs despite having moderately severe dementia. The views of the person with dementia were commonly in agreement with the staff and family carers' views. However, user and carer pairs had the lowest average percentage agreement of 63% compared to that of 77% between user and staff pairs. In particular, users reported relatively higher unmet needs for psychological distress, company and information, and high unmet needs for daytime activities and eyesight/hearing problems.

Conclusions: Users' views on their needs should be sought even when the person has dementia and lives in a care home. Reliance solely on assessment by staff or carers may lead to under recognition of unmet needs.

Background: Despite widespread use of second-generation cholinesterase inhibitors (CHEIs) for the symptomatic treatment of Alzheimer's disease (AD), little is known about possible long-term effects in different functional domains. This study seeks to assess change in activities of daily living (ADLs) over two years in AD patients treated with CHEIs matched to untreated patients in the same longitudinal cohort study.

Methods: This study is based on the two-year prospective cohort study at the Memory Clinic in Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre, University of Toronto. Probable AD patients (N = 130: untreated = 65, treated = 65) underwent standardized neuropsychological assessments including the Disability Assessment for Dementia Scale (DAD), at baseline, one-year and two-year follow-up. Groups received a careful evaluation of comorbid illnesses, concomitant medication use, and vascular risk factors.

Results: At baseline, there were no significant differences in demographics and characteristics. Treated patients showed less decline in overall function and in instrumental and basic ADLs. Furthermore, less decline was seen in the overall scores for initiation and planning over two years with moderate to large effect sizes.

Conclusion: These findings have clinical relevance since functional ability has been increasingly recognized as a key outcome variable in AD treatment. It is also of note that the subscores reflecting executive functioning appear to drive these beneficial differences.

Recent randomized control trials and meta-analyses of experimental studies indicate positive effects of non-pharmacological cognitive training on the cognitive function of healthy older adults. Furthermore, a large-scale randomized control trial with older adults, independent at entry, indicated that training delayed their cognitive and functional decline over a five-year follow-up. This supports cognitive training as a potentially efficient method to postpone cognitive decline in persons with mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Most of the research on the effect of cognitive training in MCI has reported increased performance following training on objective measures of memory whereas a minority reported no effect of training on objective cognitive measures. Interestingly, some of the studies that reported a positive effect of cognitive training in persons with MCI have observed large to moderate effect size. However, all of these studies have limited power and few have used long-term follow-ups or functional impact measures. Overall, this review highlights a need for a well-controlled randomized trial to assess the efficacy of cognitive training in MCI. It also raises a number of unresolved issues including proper outcome measures, issues of generalization and choice of intervention format.

Background: Decreased initiation of activities is a common symptom in Alzheimer's disease (AD) and creates significant burden for carers, yet little is known about how patients, carers and treating physicians describe this problem.

Methods: This is a secondary, qualitative analysis of video-recorded, semi-structured and open-ended interviews with the 130 community-dwelling patients with mild-to-moderate AD from the Video-Imaging Synthesis of Treating Alzheimer's Disease (VISTA) study – a four-month, randomized, placebo-controlled trial of galantamine. Interviews were coded and organized using Atlas.ti. By applying a framework analysis approach, patient/carer descriptions of dementia-related decreased initiation of usual tasks and activities were categorized and summarized.

Results: Decreased initiation of instrumental activities of daily living (IADLs) and/or leisure and social activities was reported in 85/130 patients at baseline, 71 (84%) of whom specifically targeted increased initiation as a goal of treatment. The most common manifestations of decreased initiation were initiating only with prompting (55%), and no longer initiating but willing to engage in the activity (42%; note that these groups can overlap). Many patients were also described as having less interest (44%) or impaired performance (34%) in the activity in which decreased initiation was noted. Coping strategies were employed by 69/85 carers, most commonly verbal prompts to begin an activity.

Conclusion: Decreased initiation is a common and problematic symptom in people with mild-to-moderate Alzheimer's disease who seek treatment for dementia. Information offered voluntarily about interest in or ability to perform activities which are initiated less often gives additional data compared with routine questioning about initiation of function. This is a potentially rich area for the elucidation of disease and treatment effects.

Background: Caring for spouses with dementia is a risk factor for increased levels of depression. Less is known about specific symptom differences between groups of caregivers and non-caregivers. This study characterizes differences on the CES-D depression screening scale between caregiving and non-caregiving spouses.

Methods: Data were obtained from 391 spouse caregivers of persons with dementia and 226 control subjects. Significant between-group differences on demographic variables determined covariates used in two multivariate ANCOVA analyses, on the set of four CES-D subscales and on the set of the 20 CES-D individual items. Significant multivariate analyses were followed by univariate tests between the two groups.

Results: Dementia caregiving spouses had significantly more depressive symptoms than non-caregiving married adults, after controlling for group differences. Proportion of variance in the set of CES-D subscales explained by caregiver group status was 13.4%. The greatest between-groups difference in univariate analysis was found in the Positive Affect subscale, and significant differences were found in 11 of the 20 CES-D items. Caregiver spouses experienced less hope for the future and less happiness and enjoyment in life than the non-caregiving spouses. They also reported greater degrees of sadness, being bothered, and loneliness than the non-caregivers.

Conclusions: The differences, particularly caregivers' lack of positive affect, suggest the need for appropriate intervention approaches to assist spouse caregivers.