Hostname: page-component-7479d7b7d-m9pkr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-12T12:48:55.402Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

U.S. Policy, Cultural Heritage, and U.S. Borders

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  31 July 2012

Christina Luke
Affiliation:
Boston University; University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. Email: cluke@bu.edu

Abstract

This article situates the discussion of illicit trafficking in antiquities in the context of the relationship between the U.S. Departments of State and Homeland Security. The main argument is that U.S. cultural heritage policy is part of a broader agenda of political discourse that links matters of heritage to wider concerns of security. If the underlying goal of the U.S. State Department is mutual understanding through open dialogue, how can initiatives that focus on the criminal networks and security, efforts tackled by the Department of Homeland Security, contribute to building a positive image for the United States abroad? Here I explore strategic aspects of U.S. cultural policies and federally supported programs aimed at mitigating against the illicit trade in antiquities as part of building and maintaining cultural relations.

Type
Research Article
Copyright
Copyright © International Cultural Property Society 2012

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Arndt, Richard T.The First Resort of Kings: American Cultural Diplomacy in the Twentieth Century. Washington, DC: Potomac Books, 2005.Google Scholar
Atwood, Roger. Stealing History: Tomb Raiders, Smugglers, and the Looting of the Ancient World. New York: St. Martin's Press, 2004.Google Scholar
Bacevich, Andrew. Washington Rules: America's Path to Permanent War. New York: Metropolitan Books, 2010.Google Scholar
Bernhardsson, Magnus T.Reclaiming a Plundered Past: Archaeology and Nation Building in Modern Iraq. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 2005.Google Scholar
Bligh, Alexander. “Countering Illicit Traffic of Cultural Heritage in the Mediterranean Region.” International Journal of Intelligence and CounterIntelligence 23 (2009): 148165.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bogdanos, Mat. Thieves of Baghdad: One Marine's Passion to Recover the World's Greatest Stolen Treasures. New York: Bloomsbury, 2005.Google Scholar
Bowman, Blythe A.Transnational Crimes Against Culture: Looting at Archaeological Sites and the ‘Gray’ Market in Antiquities.” Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice 24 (2008): 118.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brading, D. A.The Origins of Mexican Nationalism. Cambridge: Centre of Latin-American Studies, 1985.Google Scholar
Brand, Laurie. “Development in Wadi Rum? State Bureaucracy, External Funders, and Civil Society.” International Journal of Middle East Studies 33 (2001): 571590.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brodie, Neil J., Kersel, Morag M., Luke, Christina, and Tubb, Kathryn Walker. Archaeology, Cultural Heritage and the Antiquities Trade. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2006.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, Kristen, and Bergo, Bettina. The Trauma Controversy. Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 2009.Google Scholar
Calhoun, Craig. Nations Matter: Culture, History and the Cosmopolitan Dream. New York: Routledge, 2007.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Center for the Study of Democracy. Organized Crime in Bulgaria: Markets and Trends. Sofia: Center for the Study of Democracy, London and New York, 2007.Google Scholar
Christie, Kenneth. United States Foreign Policy and National Identity in the Twenty-First Century. Routledge Studies in U.S. Foreign Policy series. New York, 2008.Google Scholar
Council of Europe. Framework Convention on the Value of Cultural Heritage for Society. Strasbourg: Council of Europe, 2005.Google Scholar
Cuno, James. Who Owns Antiquity? Museums and the Battle over Our Ancient Heritage. Princeton, NJ: University of Princeton Press, 2008.Google Scholar
De Jong, Ferdinand, and Rowlands, Michael. “Introduction: Post-Conflict Heritage.” Journal of Material Culture 13 (2008): 131–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Díaz-Andreu, M.Internationalism in the Invisible College: Political Ideologies and Friendships in Archaeology.” Journal of Social Archaeology 7 (2007): 2948.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Díaz-Andreu, M.A World History of Nineteenth-Century Archaeology. Nationalism, Colonialism and the Past. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Díaz-Andreu, M., and Champion, T.. Nationalism and Archaeology in Europe. London: Westview Press, 1996.Google Scholar
European Commission—Council of Europe Joint Programme. Integrated Rehabilitation Project Plan/Survey of the Architectural and Archaeological Heritage (IRPP/SAAH). Serbia and Montenegro (Serbia), March 2004.Google Scholar
Felch, Jason, and Frammolino, Ralph. Chasing Aphrodite: The Hunt for Looted Antiquities at the World's Richest Museum. New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2011.Google Scholar
Final Report of the Audit of the Global Strategy and the PACT initiative. 2011. Independent Evaluation by the UNESCO external auditor. Volume 1: Implementation of the Global Strategy for the Credible, Balanced, and Representative World Heritage List. Office of the External Auditor for the United Nations Scientific, Educational and Cultural Organization.Google Scholar
Foro, Phillippe, and Rey, Sarah. “Archaeology Without Identity? Antiquity and French Archaeological Research Around the Mediterranean (1850–1945).” Fragmenta 2, no. 2 (2008): 95107.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frankel, Charles. The Neglected Aspect of Foreign Affairs. American Educational and Cultural Policy Abroad. Washington DC: The Brookings Institution, 1965.Google Scholar
Frankel, Charles. “Multipurpose Diplomacy: Culture, Information and Foreign Policy.” Public Administration Review 29 (1969): 593600.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gerstenblith, Patty. “Controlling the International Market in Antiquities: Reducing the Harm, Preserving the Past.” Chicago Journal of International Law 8 (2007): 169–95.Google Scholar
Gerstenblith, Patty. “Schultz and Barakat: Universal Recognition of National Ownership of Antiquities.” Art Antiquity & Law 14 (2009): 2148.Google Scholar
Goode, James. Negotiating for the Past: Archaeology, Nationalism, and Diplomacy in the Middle East, 1919–1941. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2007.Google Scholar
Grainger, A.Customs and Trade Facilitation: From Concepts to Implementation.” World Customs Journal 2 (2008): 1730.Google Scholar
Hardy, Samuel Andrew. Interrogating Archaeological Ethics in Conflict Zones: Cultural Heritage Work in Cyprus. Ph.D. dissertation. University of Sussex, 2010.Google Scholar
Harmersveld, Ineke Van. Cultural Policies in Algeria, Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, Palestine, Syria and Tunisia. An Introduction. Amsterdam: BOEKMANSTUDIES, 2010.Google Scholar
Hope, Stacy. “Public Diplomacy and Local Staff: The Cornerstone of Long-Term Relationship Building.” Public Diplomacy Magazine (Winter 2009): 5359.Google Scholar
Jalelian, Lincoln. “Theft of Art, Antiquities, Cultural Property and the ‘Deliberate Ignorance’ Defense.” Criminal Law Bulletin 48 (2012):113.Google Scholar
Jones, Reece. “Border Security, 9/11 and the Enclosure of Civilization.” The Geographic Journal 177 (2011): 213–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Justice and Development Party, Republic of Turkey. Sphinx of Hattusa Back in Turkey. ⟨http://www.akparti.org.tr/english/haberler/sphinx-of-hattusa-back-in-turkey/11278⟩ accessed 15 April 2012.Google Scholar
Kalin, İbrahim. “Soft Power and Public Diplomacy in Turkey.” Perceptions XVI, no. 3 (2011): 523.Google Scholar
Kersel, Morag M. License to Sell: The Trade of Antiquities in Israel. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Cambridge, 2006.Google Scholar
Kersel, Morag M.Transcending Borders: Objects on the Move.” Archaeologies. Journal of the World Archaeological Congress 3 (2007): 8198.Google Scholar
Kersel, Morag M.A Focus on the Demand Side of the Antiquities Equation.” Near Eastern Archaeology 71 (2008): 230–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kersel, Morag, and Luke, Christina, “The Archaeology of Trauma.” Introduction to “Communities and Archaeology under the Soufriere Hills Volcano on Montserrat, West Indies,” by Krysta Ryzewski, John F. Cherry, Thomas P. Leppard, and Elizabeth Murphy. Archaeological Heritage and Ethics Column, Journal of Field Archaeology 37(2), in press.Google Scholar
Kovach, Peter. “Out from Under the Proscenium: A Paradigm for U.S. Cultural Diplomacy.” Public Diplomacy Magazine (Winter 2010): 7074.Google Scholar
Kurin, Richard. Reflections of a Culture Broker: A View from the Smithsonian. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1997.Google Scholar
Luke, Christina. “The Science Behind U.S. Smart Power in Honduras: Archaeological Heritage Diplomacy.” Diplomacy & Statecraft 23 (2012): 110–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Luke, Christina, and Kersel, Morag. U.S. Cultural Diplomacy: Soft Power, Hard Heritage. New York: Routlege, forthcoming.Google Scholar
Lush, Tamara. “Antiquities Smuggling: Growing problem at US ports.” The Associated Press, 14 September 2008.Google Scholar
Mackenzie, Simon. Going, Going, Gone: Regulating the Market in Illicit Antiquities. Leicester, UK: Institute of Art and Law, 2005.Google Scholar
Mackenzie, Simon. “The Market as Criminal and Criminals in the Market: Reducing Opportunities for Organised Crime in the International Antiquities Market.” In Crime in the Art and Antiquities World: Illegal Trafficking in Cultural Property, Part 1, edited by Manacorda, Stefano and Chappell, Duncan, 6985. New York: Springer, 2011.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Magness-Gardiner, Bonnie. “Long-Term Archaeological Loans from Italy: Summary of Roundtable Discussions.” American Journal of Archaeology 107 (2003): 477–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McClory, Jonathan. The New Persuaders: An International Ranking of Soft Power. London: Institute for Government, 2010.Google Scholar
Meskell, Lynn. “The Rush to Inscribe: Reflections on the 35th Session of the World Heritage Committee, UNESCO Paris, 2011.” Archaeological Heritage and Ethics Column, Journal of Field Archaeology 37(2): 145151.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mulcahy, Kevin. “Cultural Policy: Definitions and Theoretical Approaches.” The Journal of Arts Management, Law and Society 35 (2006): 319–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Weary Herakleshttp://www.mfa.org/collections/provenance/weary-herakles⟩ accessed 20 March 2012.Google Scholar
Nemeth, Erik. “Art-Intelligence Programs: The Relevance of the Clandestine Art World to Foreign Intelligence.” International Journal of Intelligence and CounterIntelligence 21 (2008): 355–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nemeth, Erik. “Collecting Cultural Intelligence: The Tactical Value of Cultural Property.” International Journal of Intelligence and CounterIntelligence 24 (2011): 217–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nielsen, Bjarke. “UNESCO and the ‘Right’ Kind of Culture: Bureaucratic Production and Articulation.” Critique of Anthropology 31 (2011): 273–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nye, Joseph S. Jr.Soft Power and American Foreign Policy.” Political Science Quarterly 119 (2004): 255–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nye, Joseph S. Jr.Public Diplomacy and Soft Power.” The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 616 (2008): 94109.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nye, Joseph S. Jr.The Future of Power. New York: Public Affairs, 2011.Google Scholar
Obama, Barack. National Security Strategy of the United States. Washington, DC: Daine, 2010.Google Scholar
Pearlstein, William. “Claims for the Repatriation of Cultural Property: Prospects for a Managed Antiquities Market.” Law and Policy in International Business 28 (1996): 123–50.Google Scholar
Proulx, Blythe. “Organized Criminal Involvement in the Illicit Antiquities Trade.” Trends in Organized Crime 14 (2011): 129.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Randel, Don M.The Public Good: Knowledge as the Foundation for a Democratic Society.” Dædalus (Winter 2009): 812.Google Scholar
Red List. “Cambodian Antiquities at Risk.” International Council of Museumshttp://archives.icom.museum/redlist/cambodia/en/index.htm⟩.Google Scholar
Reid, Malcolm. Whose Pharaohs?: Archaeology, Museums, and Egyptian Identity from Napoleon to World War I. Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2003.Google Scholar
Rush, Laurie. Archaeology, Cultural Heritage and the Military. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press, 2010.Google Scholar
Ryan, Jason, and Silvanto, Sari. “The World Heritage List: The Making and Management of a Brand.” Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 5 (2009): 290301.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scham, Sandra. “Disinheriting Heritage: Explorations in the Contentious History of Archaeology in the Middle East.” In Archaeology and the Postcolonial Critique, edited by Liebmann, M. and Rizvi, U. Z., 165–76. Walnut Creek, CA: Altamira Press, 2008.Google Scholar
Scham, Sandra. “Diplomacy and Desired Pasts.” Journal of Social Archaeology 9 (2009): 163–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schneider, Cynthia, and Nelson, Kristina. Mightier than the Sword: Arts and Culture in the U.S. Muslim World Relationship. Washington, DC: The Saban Center for Middle East Policy at the Brookings Institution, 2009.Google Scholar
Serhan, Ada, and İnce, H. Ayça. Introduction to Cultural Policy in Turkey. Istanbul: Istanbul Bilgi University Press, 2009.Google Scholar
Smith, Laurajane. Uses of Heritage. New York: Routledge, 2006.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stein, Arlene. “Trauma and Origins: Post-Holocaust Genealogists and the Work of Memory.” Qualitative Sociology 32 (2009): 293309.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stone, Peter, and Bajjaly, Joanne Farchakh. The Destruction of Cultural Heritage in Iraq. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press, 2008.Google Scholar
Tumarkin, M.. Traumascapes. Melbourne: Melbourne University Press.2005.Google Scholar
UNESCO 2011 toolkit: Convention for the fight against the illicit trafficking of cultural property: The Fight Against the Illicit Trafficking of Cultural Objects: the 1970 Convention: Past and Future: Information Kit.Google Scholar
UNESCO. Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property. Paris: UNESCO, 1970.Google Scholar
UNESCO. Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. Paris: UNESCO, 1972.Google Scholar
UNSAAC–Yale University. Memorandum of Understanding Regarding the UNSAAC–Yale University International Center for the Study of Machu Picchu and Inca Culture, 2011http://opac.yale.edu/peru/english/⟩.Google Scholar
Urice, Stephen K., Adler, with Andrew L.. “Unveiling the Executive Branch's Extralegal Cultural Property Policy.” In MiamiLaw Research Paper Series, 2010http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstractid=1658519&download=yes⟩.Google Scholar
U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement. “ICE Returns Ancient Artifacts to Peruvian Government Valued at More than $1 Million, Nearly All Are Precolumbian.” News Release, 30 April 2004http://eca.state.gov/icpp/peru-ice04.html⟩.Google Scholar
U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement. “ICE and CBP Return Illegally Exported Cultural Artifacts to Guatemala.” News Release, 24 February 2012http://www.ice.gov/news/releases/1202/120224washingtondc.htm⟩.Google Scholar
U.S. State Department. Cultural Diplomacy: The Linchpin of Public Diplomacy. Washington, DC: Advisory Committee on Cultural Diplomacy Report, 2005.Google Scholar
Van Gorp, Bouke, and Renes, Hans. “A European Cultural Identity? Heritage and Shared Histories in the European Union,” Tijdschrift voor economische en sociale geografie 98(2006): 407415.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vitale, Katherine D.The War on Antiquities: United States Law and Foreign Cultural Property.” Notre Dame Law Review 84 (2008): 101–40.Google Scholar
Watson, Peter, and Todeschini, Cecilia. The Medici Conspiracy: The Illicit Journey of Looted Antiquities—From Italy's Tomb Raiders to the World's Greatest Museums. New York: Public Affairs, 2006.Google Scholar
Waxman, Sharon. Loot: The Battle over the Stolen Treasures of the Ancient World. New York: Times Books, 2008.Google Scholar