¹ Stanford University. (1943). Civil Affairs Training School. “Directives Concerning Case Problems.” United States, CATS collection, Hoover Archives, Stanford University, box 7, folder 3.Google Scholar

² For a baseline definition of “progressive” pedagogy, I refer readers to the seven “Principles of Progressive Education,” which graced the inside covers of early volumes of the journal, Progressive Education. Those relevant to this discussion included: (2) “Interest, the Motive of All Work,” (3) “The Teacher as a Guide, not a Task Master,” (4) “Scientific Study of Pupil Development,” and (7) “The Progressive School a Leader in Educational Movements.” To this I add the problem-solving orientation of Social Studies in the early twentieth century.Google Scholar

³ Thelin, John R., A History of American Higher Education (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 2004), 257–59.Google Scholar

⁴ Tyack, David B., The One Best System: A History of American Urban Education (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1974); Lawrence Cremin, The Transformation of the School: Progressivism in American Education, 1876–1957 (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1961); Diane Ravitch, The Troubled Crusade: American Education: 1945–1980 (New York: Basic Books, 1983) and Left Back: A Century of Battles Over School Reform (New York: Simon and Schuster. 2000); Cuban, Larry, How Teachers Taught: Constancy and Change in America's Classrooms, 1890–1980 (New York: Longman, 1984).Google Scholar

⁵ Ravitch, , Left Back, 218.Google Scholar

⁶ Saxe, David Warren, Social Studies in Schools: A History of the Early Years (Albany: SUNY Press, 1991), 3.Google Scholar

⁷ Evans, Ronald, The Social Studies Wars: What Should We Teach the Children? (New York: Teachers College Press, 2004); Thornton, Stephen J., Teaching Social Studies That Matters: Curriculum for Active Learning (New York: Teachers College Press, 2005); Zimmerman, Jonathan, Whose America: Culture Wars in the Public Schools (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2005).Google Scholar

⁸ Kliebard, Herbert, Changing Course: American Curriculum Reform in the 20 ^th Century (New York: Teacher's College Press, 2002); Tyack, One Best System. Google Scholar

⁹ Kliebard, , Changing Course, 3–4. On nineteenth century antecedents, see Reese, William J., “Origins of Progressive Education,” History of Education Quarterly 41:1 (2001). David Labaree provides a wonderfully succinct account of the history of progressive reform in The Trouble with Ed Schools (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2004), 143–54.Google Scholar

¹⁰ Bohan, Chara Haeussler, “Early Vanguards of Progressive Education: The Committee of Ten, The Committee of Seven and Social Education,” in Social Education in the Twentieth Century: Curriculum and Context for Citizenship, ed. Christine Woyshner, Joseph Watras, and Margaret Smith Crocco (New York: Peter Lang, 2004), 1–19. Kliebard, Changing Course; Tanner, Daniel and Tanner, Laurel, History of the School Curriculum (New York: MacMillan, 1990).Google Scholar

¹¹ For example, see the different interpretations of Ravitch, Left Back; Angus, David, and Mirel, Jeffrey, The Failed Promise of the American High School, 1890–1995 (New York: Teachers College Press, 1999); Cuban, How Teachers Taught, Kliebard, Changing Course; Tyack, The One Best System. Google Scholar

¹² Ravitch, , Left Back, 238–83.Google Scholar

¹³ Cuban, , How Teachers Taught. Google Scholar

¹⁴ Counts, George S., Dare the Schools build a New Social Order? (New York: The John Day Company, 1932), 37.Google Scholar

¹⁵ Kilpatrick, William, The Educational Frontier (New York: The Century Company, 1933).Google Scholar

¹⁶ Makler, Andra, “‘Problems of Democracy’ and the Social Studies Curriculum During the Long Armistice” in Social Education in the Twentieth Century: Curriculum and Context for Citizenships, ed. Christine Woyshner, Joseph Watras, and Margaret Smith Crocco (New York: Peter Lang, 2004), 20–41. See also Kliebard's analysis of Rugg's interpretation of World War I in Changing Course. Google Scholar

¹⁷ Makler, Andra, “‘Problems of Democracy’ and the Social Studies Curriculum”; Murry Robert Nelson, “Building a Science of Society: The Social Studies and Harold Rugg” (PhD dissertation, Stanford University, 1975); Evans, The Social Studies Wars, 46–69; Kliebard, Changing Course, 61–75.Google Scholar

¹⁸ For examples of this shift in thinking, see Progressive Education Association, Frontiers of Democracy 6, no. 49 (December 1939): 68–69; Frontiers of Democracy 9, no. 71 (October 1942); Frontiers of Democracy 9, no. 73 (December) 1942.Google Scholar

¹⁹ Robinson, , Donald, W. “Patriotism and Economic Control: The Censure of Harold Rugg”(EdD dissertation New Brunswick, NJ: Graduate School of Education, Rutgers University, 1983); Zimmerman, Whose America. Google Scholar

²⁰ Zimmerman, , Whose America, 79.Google Scholar

²¹ Ravitch, , Left Back, 322; Evans, The Social Studies Wars, 70.Google Scholar

²² Rudolph, Frederick, The American College and University: A History (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1990), 359–71, 469, 475.Google Scholar

²³ Klein, Julie Thompson, Interdisciplinarity: History, Theory, and Practice (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1990), 24–26.Google Scholar

²⁴ Powers, Marshall K., “Area Studies,” The Journal of American Higher Education 26, no. 2 (February 1955): 82–113.Google Scholar

²⁵ For another example of attempts at interdisciplinarity, see the story of the SRC in Fisher, Donald, Fundamental Development of the Social Sciences: Rockefeller Philanthorpy and the United States Social Science Research Council (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1993), 5. More generally see Worchester, Kenton W., Social Science Research Council, 1923–1998 (New York: Social Science Research Council, 2001). Accessed 22 July 2009 from the SSRC website http://www.ssrc.org/publications/view/1F20C6E1-565F-DE11-BD80-001CC477EC70/.Google Scholar

²⁶ Klein, , Interdisciplinarity, 19–24; Boyer, Ernest L., “The Quest for Common Learning,” in Common Learning: A Carnegie Colloquium on General Education (Washington, DC: Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, 1981), 4.Google Scholar

²⁷ Klein, , Interdisciplinarity, 26–28.Google Scholar

²⁸ Nenninger, Timothy K., The Leavenworth Schools and the Old Army: Education, Professionalism, and the Officer Corps of the United States Army, 1881–1918 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1978), 7.Google Scholar

²⁹ Creveld, Martin van, The Training of Military Officers: From Military Professionalism to Irrelevance (New York: The Free Press, 1990), 57–65.Google Scholar

³⁰ Ellis, Joseph and Moore, Robert, School for Soldiers: West Point and the Profession of Arms (New York: Oxford University Press, 1974), 30–37. Herbert Y. Schandler, “Sylvanus Thayer,” in Professional Military Education in the United States: A Historical Dictionary, ed. Simons, William E. (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2000), 310–11; Samuel Watson, “Developing ‘Republican Machines': West Point and the Struggle to Render the Officer Corps Safe for America, 1802–33,” in Thomas Jefferson's Military Academy: Founding West Point, ed. Robert M.S. McDonald (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2004), 154–81.Google Scholar

³¹ Genung, Patricia B., “Teaching Foreign Languages at West Point,” in West Point: Two Centuries and Beyond, ed. Lance Betros (Abilene, TX: McWhiney Foundation Press, 2004), 507–32.Google Scholar

³² Nenninger, , The Leavenworth Schools, 34–50; Stiehm, Judith Hicks, The U.S. Army War College: Military Education in a Democracy (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2002), 25–27; Creveld, Van, The Training of Military Officers, 60.Google Scholar

³³ Ibid., 57–61; Ball, Harry P., Of Responsible Command: A History of the U.S. Army War College (Carlisle Barracks, PA: The Alumni Association of the United States Army War College, 1983), 21–40.Google Scholar

³⁴ Ball, , Of Responsible Command, 59–82.Google Scholar

³⁵ Creveld, Van, The Training of Military Officers, 61 (see endnote 59); Nenninger, The Leavenworth Schools, 53–79.Google Scholar

³⁶ Raines, Edgar F., Jr., “Tasker H. Bliss,” in Professional Military Education in the United States: A Historical Dictionary, ed. William E. Simons (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2000), 78–82; Ball, Of Responsible Command, 88–93.Google Scholar

³⁷ Ibid., 95.Google Scholar

³⁸ Ibid., 100–1.Google Scholar

³⁹ Ibid., 226–29.Google Scholar

⁴⁰ Keefer, Louis E., Scholars in Foxholes: The Story of the Army Specialized Training Program in World War II (London: McFarland, 1988).Google Scholar

⁴¹ Ziemke, Earl F., “Civil Affairs Reaches Thirty,” Military Affairs 36, no. 4 (December 1972): 130–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁴² Hunt, Irwin, American Military Government in Occupied Germany (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1920).Google Scholar

⁴³ Ziemke, , “Civil Affairs,” 131; Harris, Joseph P., “Selection and Training of Civil Affairs Officers,” The Public Opinion Quarterly 7, no. 4 (Winter 1943): 694–706.Google Scholar

⁴⁴ Ibid., 131.Google Scholar

⁴⁵ A brief biography comes from “Guide to the Charles S. Hyneman Papers,” Indiana University Archives. It is available online at http://www.letrs.indiana.edu. Information accessed and downloaded by the author on 20 July 2006.Google Scholar

⁴⁶ Hyneman, Charles, “The Army's Civil Affairs Training Program,” American Political Science Review 38, no. 2 (April 1944): 342–53; Charles Hyneman, “The Wartime Area and Language Courses,” American Association of University Professors Bulletin 31, no. 3 (Autumn 1945): 434–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁴⁷ Harris, , “Selection and Training.”Google Scholar

⁴⁸ Hyneman, , “Wartime Area and Language Courses,” 435; Keefer, , Scholars in Foxholes, 48; Cardozier, V. R., Colleges and Universities in World War II (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1993).Google Scholar

⁴⁹ Harris, , “Selection and Training”; Hyneman, “The Army's Civil Affairs Training Program”; Matthew, Robert John, Language and Area Studies in the Armed Services: Their Future Significance (Washington, DC: American Council on Education, 1947), 75.Google Scholar

⁵⁰ “Memorandum to: The Commandant Subject: Report on the British Civil Affairs School,” 2 June 1943, box 13–14, CATS collection; Ziemke, “Civil Affairs;” Embree, John F., “American Military Government,” in Social Structure: Studies presented to A. R. Radcliffe-Brown, ed. Meyer Fortes (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1949), 207–25, 210.Google Scholar

⁵¹ Hyneman, , “The Army's Civil Affairs Training Program.”Google Scholar

⁵² Angiolillo, Paul F., Armed Forces’ Foreign Language Teaching: Critical Evaluation and Implications (New York: S. F. Vanni, 1947), 23.Google Scholar

⁵³ Hyneman, , “The Army's Civil Affairs Training Program”; Hyneman, “The Wartime Area and Language Courses”; Matthew, “Language and Area Studies”; Ziemke. “Civil Affairs.”Google Scholar

⁵⁴ Angiolillo, , Armed Forces’ Foreign Language Teaching, 17–42; Leonard Bloomfield, Language (New York: Holt and Company, 1933); Leonard Bloomfield, Guide for the Practical Study of Foreign Languages (Baltimore: Linguistic Society of America, 1942); Robert A. Hall, “Progress and Reaction in Modern Language Teaching,” American Association of University Professors Bulletin 31, no. 2 (Summer 1945): 220–30; Pei, Mario A., “A Modern Language Teacher Replies,” American Association of University Professors Bulletin 31, no. 3 (Autumn 1945): 409–17.Google Scholar

⁵⁵ Diekhoff, John S., “The Army Mission and the Method of Army Language Teaching,” American Association of University Professors Bulletin 31, no. 4 (Winter 1945): 606–20; Hall, “Progress and Reaction”; Pei, “A Modern Language Teacher Replies.”CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁵⁶ Angiolillo, , Armed Forces’ Foreign Language Teaching, 24.Google Scholar

⁵⁷ Hyneman, , “The Wartime Area and Language Courses,” 437.Google Scholar

⁵⁸ Pei, , “A Modern Language Teacher Replies”; Deikhoff, “The Army Mission and the Method.”Google Scholar

⁵⁹ Sokol, A.E., “The Army Language Program,” The Journal of Higher Education 17, no. 1 (January 1946): 9–16; Deikhoff, “The Army Mission and the Method.” Originally, the military did not consider language instruction to be a necessary part of the Civil Affairs Training Program. See Paul Hanna, “Possible curriculum for ‘military administration of reoccupation’ school.” 19 December 1942. CATS collection, box 31–32.Google Scholar

⁶⁰ “Conference: Training of Officer Candidates Called by the Military Government Division, OPMG,” CATS collection box 27–23.Google Scholar

⁶¹ Matthew, Robert John, Language and Area Studies in the Armed Services: Their Future Significance (Washington, DC: American Council on Education, 1947), xiii; Ziemke, “Civil Affairs.”Google Scholar

⁶² Hyneman, “The Wartime Area and Language Courses,” 438; “Biography.” Harold, W. Stoke Papers. University of New Hampshire Archives. Available online at http://www.izaak.unh.edu/archives/holdings/ua2/1-8.shtml. Accessed and downloaded by author on 20 July 2006; Cardozier, Colleges and Universities in World War II, 32.Google Scholar

⁶³ Matthew, Language and Area Studies, 58–60, 77–78.Google Scholar

⁶⁴ War Department School of Military Government, Charlotte, Virginia. “Second Course, September–December, 1942, Outline of Curriculum,” CATS collection box 57–64.Google Scholar

⁶⁵ Memorandum for Directors, Associate Directors, and Language Directors, CATS. Subject: Use of Field Office Problems in Language Instruction. CATS collection box 2, folder 2; Hyneman “The Wartime Area and Language Courses,” 444; Ziemke, “Civil Affairs,” 132.Google Scholar

⁶⁶ Thelin, , A History of American Higher Education; Vesey, Laurence R., The Emergence of the American University (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965); Lowen, Rebecca, Creating the Cold War University: The Transformation of Stanford (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997); Dorn, Charles, “Promoting the ‘Public Welfare’ in Wartime: Stanford University during World War I,” American Journal of Education 112, no. 1 (November 2005): 103–28.Google Scholar

⁶⁷ Thelin A History of American Higher Education, 243–45.Google Scholar

⁶⁸ Lowen, , Creating the Cold War University, 70; Dorn, “Promoting the ‘Public Welfare,”’ 106–7.Google Scholar

⁶⁹ Lowen, Creating the Cold War University, 56–57; Stallones, Jared, Paul Robert Hannah: A Life of Expanding Communities (Stanford, CA: Hoover Institute Press, 2002), 92–100.Google Scholar

⁷⁰ Leslie, Stuart W., The Cold War and American Science: The Military-Industrial Academic Complex at MIT and Stanford (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), 1–13; Lowen, Creating the Cold War University, 57.Google Scholar

⁷¹ Dorn, , “Promoting the Public Welfare,”’ 108.Google Scholar

⁷² Leslie, , The Cold War and American Science, 1–13; Lowen, Creating the Cold War University, 57; Dorn, “Promoting the ‘Public Welfare’ in Wartime,” 108, 111–12; Cardozier, Colleges and Universities in World War II, 37–44.Google Scholar

⁷³ Hanna, , Paul, R. Memorandum to Chancellor Ray Lyman Wilbur, 19 December 1942, CATS collection 31–32, Hoover Institute Archives, Stanford University.Google Scholar

⁷⁴ Memorandum by Hanna, Paul dated 10 March 1943, and “Proposed School of Military Government at Stanford University,” Revised 3/10/44, box 27–33 CATS collection.Google Scholar

⁷⁵ James, Thomas, Exile Within: The Schooling of Japanese Americans, 1942–1945 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press 1987); Stallones, Paul Robert Hannah, 63–68; Dorn, “Promoting the ‘Public Welfare’ in Wartime,” 107.Google Scholar

⁷⁶ There is no evidence of Hanna's involvement in designing or overseeing the program at Stanford in either the CATS papers or the Hanna papers kept at the Hoover Library at Stanford University.Google Scholar

⁷⁷ Ten universities won Civil Affairs Training Schools: Yale, Harvard, Michigan, Chicago, Boston, Pittsburgh, Wisconsin, Northwestern, Western Reserve (now Case Western Reserve), and Stanford. See Harris, “Selection and Training,” 697.Google Scholar

⁷⁸ Harris, , “Selection and Training,” 701.Google Scholar

⁷⁹ CATS collection, boxes 21–25.Google Scholar

⁸⁰ Pfc. Mathieu, Gustave, “French Language Instruction of Officers Attending CATS at Stanford University,” 18 March 1944, CATS collection, box 36 folder 5.Google Scholar

⁸¹ Hyneman, Charles. “Some Observations on the CATS, Stanford University, Inspected October 18th, 19th, 20th 1943,” CATS collection, box 28 folder 8.Google Scholar

⁸² Fisher, H.H., “Comments on the Course,” [fall] 1944, CATS collection, box 36, folder 4; Fisher, H.H. to Tresidder, Donald, “Final Report of the Far Eastern program carried on in the Civil Affairs Training School,” 14 September 1945, CATS collection, box 36, folder 5.Google Scholar

⁸³ Fisher, H.H. to Tresidder, Donald, “Final Report of the Far Eastern program carried on in the Civil Affairs Training School,” 14 September 1945, CATS collection, box 36, folder 5, 10–11.Google Scholar

⁸⁴ “Civil Affairs Training Program Explanatory Notes to Accompany Curricula,” 5 January 1944, box 27, folder 2.Google Scholar

⁸⁵ Ibid., 15–16.Google Scholar

⁸⁶ Ibid., 13.Google Scholar

⁸⁷ Directives Concerning Case Problems, CATS collection, box 7, folder 3; H.H. Fisher to Tresidder, Donald, “Report on the Civil Affairs Training School,” 15 April 1944, CATS collection, box 25, folder 2.Google Scholar

⁸⁸ Fisher, H.H. to Donald Tresidder, “Final Report of the Far Eastern program carried on in the Civil Affairs Training School,” 14 September 1945, CATS collection, box 36, folder 5, 11–13.Google Scholar

⁸⁹ Ibid.; “Civil Affairs Training School At Stanford University, Memorandum by Lieutenant Lester Goodman U.S.N.R., 25 February 1944, CATS collection, box 25–31; “Report on CATSADE, CATS collection, box 11, folder 1.Google Scholar

⁹⁰ “Suggestions made by officers of Class III in group meetings held 28 June 1945,” CATS collection, box 26, folder 2; “Memorandum for Mr.Fisher, H.H. Subject: Suggestions for the Improvement of the CATS,” 2 November 1944, CATS collection, box 36, folder 4.Google Scholar

⁹¹ Interview with Alba [Martinelli] Thompson, conducted 25 April 2006 at 1 p.m. at her home in Plymouth, Massachusetts. In possession of author.Google Scholar

⁹² Hyneman, Charles. “Some Observations on the CATS, Stanford University, Inspected October 18th, 19th, 20th 1943,” CATS collection, box 28, folder 8; Fisher, H.H., “Comments on the Course,” [fall] 1944, CATS collection, Box 36, folder 4. See also, Fisher, H.H. to Donald Tresidder, “Final Report of the Far Eastern program carried on in the Civil Affairs Training School,” 14 September 1945, CATS collection, box 36, folder 5.Google Scholar

⁹³ Embree, , “American Military Government,” 212.Google Scholar

⁹⁴ Fisher, H.H., “Comments on the Course,” [fall] 1944, CATS collection, box 36, folder 4.Google Scholar

⁹⁵ Robinson, Major H.E., “Military Courtesy and Discipline,” Memorandum to all CATS program directors, 5 January 1944, CATS collection, box 27, folder 2.Google Scholar

⁹⁶ O'Reilly, Vernon, “Hoover Library Helps Students Training to Rule Japs,” The San Francisco News, 31 January 1945, Newspaper Clipping from CATS collection, box 13, folder 7. For the age range, see Hyneman “The Army's Civil Affairs Training Program,” 344.Google Scholar

⁹⁷ “Civil Affairs Training Program, Curriculum: Central and Western Europe,” 5 January 1944, CATS collection, box 27, folder 2.Google Scholar

⁹⁸ One of the primary concerns that University faculty across the nation expressed after Pearl Harbor, even as they embraced aiding the government in the war effort, was that the mistakes of World War I not be repeated—especially the violations of academic freedom, red-baiting, and intense xenophobia. See Zook, George F., “How the Colleges Went to War,” Annals of the American Academy of Political Science 231 (January 1944): 1–7; Cardozier, Colleges and Universities in World War II, 4–6; Keefer, , Scholars in Foxholes, 16–17; Gruber, Carol S., Mars and Minerva: World War One and the Uses of Higher Learning in America (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1975).Google Scholar

⁹⁹ Cardozier, , Colleges and Universities in World War II, 25.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁰ CATS collection, box 13, folder 7.Google Scholar

¹⁰¹ As cited in Keefer, Scholars in Foxholes, 49.Google Scholar

¹⁰² Hanna, Paul R., “Memorandum to Chancellor Wilbur, Ray Lyman, Subject: Importance of the name of our training unit for Foreign Area and Language,” 27 May 1943, CATS collection, box 27, folder 3.Google Scholar

¹⁰³ The CATS collection contains personnel files and correspondence regarding Nisei instructors, See boxes 18–20. For an explanation of the recruiting process, see Fisher, H.H. to Tresidder, Donald. “Final Report of the Far Eastern program carried on in the Civil Affairs Training School,” 14 September 1945, CATS collection, box 36, folder 5.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁴ Smith, Geoffrey S., “Racial Nativism and Origins of Japanese American Relocation,” in Japanese Americans, from Relocation to Redress, ed. Roger Daniels, Sandra Taylor, and Harry Kitano (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1986), 79–85.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁵ Embree, , “American Military Government.”Google Scholar

¹⁰⁶ “Memorandum for Directors and Associate Directors, CATS: Subject: Attitude of Student Officers towards Japanese,” SPMGW 352.11, 2 May 1945, CATS collection, box 36–42.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁷ Keesing, F.M., “The Japanese People,” Class IV-40 Doc. 16, CATS collection, box 4–2.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁸ “Personal Characteristics and Outstanding Qualities of the Japanese,” VI-142, Doc. 78, CATS collection, box 6, folder 1; “Suggested Precautions for Military Government Officers,” VI-137, CATS collection, box 6, folder 1; Interview with Alba [Martinelli] Thompson.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁹ Harris, , “Selection and Training,” 700.Google Scholar

¹¹⁰ Lowen, , Creating the Cold War University, 67; Dorn, “Promoting the ‘Public Welfare’ in Wartime.”Google Scholar

¹¹¹ Hyneman, , “The Wartime Area and Language Courses,” 445.Google Scholar

¹¹² Thomas, Lawrence G., “Can the Social Sciences Learn from the Army Program?,” The Journal of Higher Education 17, no. 1 (January 1946): 17–22.Google Scholar

¹¹³ Stoke, Harold W., “The Future of Graduate Education,” The Journal of Higher Education 18, no. 9 (December 1947): 473–477, 491.Google Scholar

¹¹⁴ Sokol, , “The Army Language Program.”Google Scholar

¹¹⁵ Grace, Alonzo, Educational Lessons from Wartime Training (Washington, DC: American Council on Education, 1947), 247.Google Scholar

¹¹⁶ Grace, , Educational Lessons, 102, 108, 230; for an overview of the growth of Area Studies programs during the Cold War, see Louis Morton, “National Security and Area Studies: The Intellectual Response to the Cold War,” The Journal of Higher Education 34, no. 3 (March 1963): 142–47.Google Scholar