1 This study is an extract from a wider investigation by the same author. The research is based mainly on documentary evidence, but also includes personal testimony. The author has for many years worked directly for and in collaboration with “ikastolas“ (Basque schools) in Navarre.Google Scholar

2 These schools varied widely in their linguistic approach. The Basque school that emerged after the Civil War determined the meaning currently attached to the terms “Basque School” (any school located in the Basque Country and using the Basque language to some extent) and “ikastola” (a Basque word used nowadays to refer to a school, founded as the result of social initiative, where all lessons are given in Basque and where Spanish or, where applicable, French, is taught simply as school subjects).Google Scholar

3 Thus, interviewees and sources consulted in areas such as Pamplona, where there are very few Basque speakers, or Estella where there are hardly any, refer to them as “Basque schools.” In the predominantly Basque-speaking areas of Elizondo and Baztán, however, the term “Ikastola” is used. In the remainder of the paper either of these terms may be used, depending on which is used by the data source.Google Scholar

4 Both Euskara and euskera are synonymous with the Basque language.Google Scholar

5 In the last ten years of the twentieth century, thanks to the initiative of the Universities located in the Basque provinces, particularly the Department of the Theory and History of Education at the University of the Basque Country, various investigations are underway within the Basque country into core aspects of education. The origin and development of the Basque Schools in Navarre, however, is an area that only recently approached from the History of Education perspective, and with many aspects that are still to be developed. An overview of works on the history of education in the Basque Country can be found in: Zabaleta, I. “Historiografía Educativa,“ in Dávila, P. Enseñanza y Educación en el País Vasco Contemporáneo (San Sebastián: Erein, 2003), 205–224.Google Scholar

6 By identity, we understand “the process of construction of meaning on the basis of a cultural attributes, that is given priority over other sources of meaning.” Castells, M. The Information Age: The Power of Identity (Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd, 1997), 6.Google Scholar

7 In the literature reviewed for this article, references to these associations appear indistinctly in Basque and Spanish.Google Scholar

8 For further information about the Moyano law, see Puelles, M. de Educación e Ideología en la España Contemporánea (Barcelona: Labor, 1991), 142–157.Google Scholar

9 Spanish people call “Castilian” the Spanish language.Google Scholar

10 About Catholicism and nationalism in this period, see Rodríguez de Coro, F. Catolicismo Vasco. Entre el furor y la furia (1931–1936) (San Sebastián: Sociedad de Estudios Vascos, 1988).Google Scholar

11 For further details about the Second Republic and education, see Pérez-Galán, M. “La enseńanza en la Segunda República,“ Revista de Educación n° extraordinario (2000): 317–332; Pintado, A. Molero La Reforma Educativa en la II República. Primer Bienio (Madrid: Santillana, 1977); Boneu, Samaniego Política Educativa en la Segunda República (Madrid: C.S.I.C., 1977); Lozano, C. La educación republicana 1931–1939 (Barcelona: Universidad de Barcelona, 1980). The following monographs are also available: “Escuela Pública-Escuela Privada (1808–1970),” Cuadernos de Pedagogía 9 (1975); “Historia de la Educación en España,” Revista de Educación 240 (1975); “Tendencias Educativas del siglo XX,” Revista de Educación 242 (1976).Google Scholar

12 On laicism in the Second Republic, see: Cruz Orozco, J. I. “La Política Laicista de la II República, El Proyecto de Ley sobre los Maestros Laicos Históricos,“ Historia de la Educación 19 (2000): 279–292.Google Scholar

13 For further information on the Basque nationalist movement and religion see Zabaleta, I. “La Enseñanza en los Orígenes del Nacionalismo Vasco: la Cuestión Religiosa,“ in Dávila, P. (coord), Las Políticas Educativas en el País Vasco durante el siglo XX (Madrid: Biblioteca Nueva, 2004).Google Scholar

14 For a more detailed description of the situation, see Benítez, M. Puelles Educación e ideología en la España contemporánea (1767–1975) (Barcelona: Colección Labor, 1990), 310–326.Google Scholar

15 Ibid., 320.Google Scholar

16 Balsera, P. Dávila La política educativa y la enseñanza pública en el País Vasco (1860–1939) (San Sebastián: Ibaeta pedagogía, 1995), 188 and ff.Google Scholar

17 The term “Basque Provinces” is used in this article in order to include the four southern provinces in Spain (Alava, Biscay, Guipuzcoa and Navarre). The three northern ones in France (Labourd, Basse-Navarre and Soule) are not considered in this article.Google Scholar

18 Balsera, La política educativa, 188 and ff.Google Scholar

19 During the eighteenth and nineteenth century in Navarra, three privately founded schools were set up where, according to witnesses of the time, knowledge of the Basque language was an essential requisite, or an advantage in the case of those otherwise equally qualified, among candidates for teaching posts. The aim of the respective founding patrons of these schools was not to revive the Basque language, but to ensure more effective acquisition by pupils of the Spanish language through the ability of teachers to use Basque when necessary.Google Scholar

20 This attitude towards the question of bilingual schooling was disseminated at various Congresses on Basque Studies and maintained by Basque nationalists such as Landeta or Eleizalde in Biscay and the Basque Language Association of Navarre led by Arturo Campión, a fuerista (defender of the charters), in Navarre. About Basque teachers, see: Dávila, P. La profesión del magisterio en el País Vasco, 1857–1930 (San Sebastián: Ibaeta, 1993).Google Scholar

21 It was a scheme by which any pupil caught speaking Basque was handed a ring (or piece of wood, key, or indeed any physical object). This must be kept until it could be passed on to another classmate guilty of the same transgression. At the end of the week, whoever was in possession of the object received some form of corporal punishment. This practice encouraged not only antisocial conduct by isolating the child who had the ring, but also disloyalty among classmates, since the only way for pupils to rid themselves of the object before the end of the week was to accuse a companion. See Lasa, J. I. Sobre la Enseñanza Primaria en el País Vasco (San Sebastián: Auñamendi, 1968), 29–30; Garate, J. “El anillo escolar en la proscripción del euskera,” BIAEV XXVI (1975): 153–151 and Jurío, J.M. Jimeno Navarra Historia del Euskera (Tafalla: Txalaparta, 1997), 187.Google Scholar

22 Etxegarai, X. Erize Vascohablantes y Castellanohablantes en la historia del euskera en Navarra (Pamplona-Iruñea: Gobierno de Navarra, 1999), 112–113.Google Scholar

23 We have the testimony of Sir Alfred Davies given at the Basque Studies Congress, regarding the use of a similar practice in Wales: Davies, Sir Alfred “El idioma Galés, su lugar en la Educación en Gales,“ (diss., III Congreso de Estudios Vascos, Sociedad de Estudios Vascos, 1922), 126–132.Google Scholar

24 For further information on this Society, see Zubizarreta, I. Estornés La Sociedad de Estudios Vascos. Aportación de Eusko Ikaskuntza a la Cultura Vasca (1918–1936) (San Sebastián: Sociedad de Estudios Vascos, 1983).Google Scholar

25 This organization held key Congresses in Oñati in 1918, in Pamplona in 1920 and in Gernika in 1922; all included lectures on teaching. The Society's 1926 Congress was devoted entirely to vocational training and education. See Arrien, G. “Nuevas formulaciones culturales, Euskal Herria y Europa,“ XI Congreso de la Sociedad de Estudios Vascos (San Sebastián: Eusko Ikaskuntza, 1991).Google Scholar

26 Decree April 29, 1931.Google Scholar

27 Cf. Education, 29 July 1931, Pamplona Municipal Archives [hereafter PMA]. File 56, folder 18.Google Scholar

28 Chueca, J. Nacionalismo Vasco en Navarra (1931–1936) (Bilbao: Universidad del País Vasco, 1999), 156.Google Scholar

29 About this party see de la Granja, J. L. El Nacionalismo Vasco, un siglo de historia (Madrid: Tecnos, 1995). The same author's El Nacionalismo Vasco (1876–1975) (Madrid: Arco libros, 2000) and Documentos para la Historia del Nacionalismo Vasco (Barcelona: Ariel, 1998). This work describes the development of nationalism and the growth of the Basque Nationalist Party. About this question in Navarre, see Chueca, J. Nacionalismo Vasco en Navarra (1931–1936) (Bilbao: Universidad del País Vasco, 1999).Google Scholar

30 The creation of subsections within the party is a practice imported by Gallastegi, Eli from Ireland, where the Irish Nationalist Party had formed not only a women's section but also a youth section. On this issue, see: Lorenzo Espinosa, J. M. Gudari. Una pasión útil. Eli Gallastegi (1892–1974) (Tafalla: Txalaparta, 1992).Google Scholar

31 Chueca, J. “Mujeres Antifranquistas en la Retaguardia Nacional. El caso de Navarra,“ in AAVV, Las Mujeres y la Guerra Civil Española (Madrid: Ministerio de Cultura, 1991), 224–228.Google Scholar

32 “The committee requests the sponsorship of the Society for Basque Studies who, while granting it, decline any specific financial responsibility (….) Financial aid was eventually granted, but only to ikastolas that submitted an end of year report to the SEV giving an account of their work,” Estornés, I. La Sociedad de Estudios Vascos, 206.Google Scholar

33 This includes the Basque schools of Pamplona, Estella and Baztán, plus many other ikastolas, including that of Tolosa. Ibid.Google Scholar

34 Chueca, J. Nacionalismo Vasco en Navarra (1931–1936) (Bilbao: Universidad del País Vasco, 1999), 151–152.Google Scholar

35 Two attempts were made by the public authorities to create an educational option in which real importance would be given to the Basque language. These were: the neighbourhood schools of Biscay and the nekazari eskolak or country schools set up by the authorities in Guipúzcoa which functioned briefly but failed to prosper. On the first of these, see Arrien, G. Educación y escuelas de barriada en Bizkaia (1898–1936) (Bilbo: Bizkaiko Foru Aldundia, 1987).Google Scholar

36 “Public” and “official” education are used here with the same meaning, to contrast with “private” education.Google Scholar

37 Estornés, I. La Sociedad de Estudios Vascos, 206.Google Scholar

38 Baroja, J. Caro Los Vascos, (Madrid: Istmo, 1995), 268.Google Scholar

39 Euzkadi: term used by the founding father of Basque nationalism, Arana, Sabino to refer to the three westernmost Basque provinces (Alava, Biscay and Guipúzcoa). It is not clear whether the term was intended to include Navarre or the three French-Basque provinces (Labourd, Basse Navarre, and Zuberoa).Google Scholar

40 Name for the inhabitants of Euzkadi, synonymous with Basque.Google Scholar

41 Education, Public file 47, folder 3, March 1927, PMA.Google Scholar

42 Though the population of Pamplona was made up mainly of monlingual Castilian speakers, there was also a Basque-speaking minority. Since Pamplona was also the capital of the Province of Navarre, many Basque speakers from the rest of the province settled in the city, temporarily or otherwise.Google Scholar

43 Earlier cases are known in which Euskera was used to communicate initially with Basque speaking children from Basque speaking areas being schooled in Castilian. In addition to the “neighbourhood” schools and “country” schools set up by the authorities, other private schools were set up in several Basque towns, such as Andoain, Oñati, Segura, and Iran.Google Scholar

44 Euzko Ikastola Batza: social institution with authority over the schools in the Basque Province of Biscay which organized Basque schooling and provided linguistic and pedagogical guidance.Google Scholar

45 This letter was addressed to Inza, Dámaso who, as secretary, had signed the application. Inza, Dámaso (Intza, 1886 – Pamplona, 1986) Franciscan who wrote in Basque. A fellow of the Basque Language Academy, he published several studies on dialects in Navarre.Google Scholar

46 “Application by the Friends of the Basque Language requesting the City Council to create a Basque school,” 18 November 1930. Public Education, PMA. File 57, folder 30, 18 November 1930.Google Scholar

47 Ibid.Google Scholar

48 “The Prologue to the Catechism published in 1790 by the Parish priest of Beriain (a village two kms from the capital) significantly states the following: “I have edited this catechism in Basque so that the children of Beriain may at once learn the Christian Doctrine and maintain their knowledge of Basque, following the example of the city where it is spoken by all (…) Pamplona lost its own language and the best way to recover it is to teach it to the children of all those who wholeheartedly lament that loss.”Google Scholar

49 “Conclusions to the Congress language section” in International Society Basque Studies, III Congress (Gernika: Sociedad de Estudios Vascos, 1922), 103. These records were published on CD by the Society for Basque Studies in 1992.Google Scholar

50 So claims Etxegarai, X. Erize Vascohablantes y Castellanohablantes en la historia del euskera en Navarra (Pamplona: Gobierno de Navarra, 1999) with an appendix listing the events mentioned here in chronological order.Google Scholar

51 Dublin 1810-Paris 1897.Google Scholar

52 Chueca, J. EI Nacionalismo en Navarra (1936–1939) (Bilbao: Universidad del País Vasco, 1999), 154.Google Scholar

53 “(…) 1933 were celebrated with great success in Esparza de Salazar, and in Abaurrea-Alta, the villagers having participated with enthusiasm; the programme included: High Mass, exhibition of Basque dances, a Basque language examination for children up to 14 years of age, with savings bank accounts as prizes; (103 children from the Salazar valley took the exam)”; Euskeraren Adiskideak, Report (1933).Google Scholar

54 This Franciscan run school in the north of Navarre was already well-known for teaching Basque as a school subject.Google Scholar

55 Chueca, J. El Nacionalismo Vasco en Navarra, 162.Google Scholar

56 Interview 1 (ex-pupil, Basque school, Pamplona, and sister of political leader), Interview 2 (ex-pupil, Basque School, Pamplona, member of Basque nationalist family), Interview 3 (ex-pupil, Basque School, Pamplona, daughter of an important nationalist leader in Navarre), Interview 4 (teacher at the ikastola of Baztán), Interview 5 (ex-pupil, Estella).Google Scholar

57 Regulation for the Basque Schools of Pamplona, Society of Basque Studies Archives, file, Education. A copy of the regulations appears in the appendix to the book by López-Goñi, I. Nafarroako Ikastolen Historia (1931–1982) (Pamplona: Fundación Euskara Elkargoa, 2002).Google Scholar

58 Ibid.Google Scholar

59 Chueca, J. El Nacionalismo Vasco en Navarra, 158.Google Scholar

60 “Request to install a mixed school in the Avenue Carlos El Noble N° 21, 1st floor, by Archanco, D. Pablo on behalf of D^a María Viscarret,” Public Education, 16 October 1931, file 56, number 2, folder 24, PMA.Google Scholar

61 “Eragiltzallen Biladia” La Voz de Navarra (14 November 1931): 6.Google Scholar

62 Tolosa 1914–1997. An article relating to these events is to be found in “Death of Maite Saizar,” La Voz de Navarra, 32 (Sept-Oct., 1997): 5.Google Scholar

63 Education, Public 15 October 1932, file 56, folder 22, PMA.Google Scholar

64 Education, Public 19 November 1932, file 58, folder 46 r., PMA.Google Scholar

65 Escolapios. Pamplona, Iruña, 1894–1994, Magazine published to mark the Centenary of the order (1994): 10. This religious order shows itself to have been more inclined than any in the capital (the Jesuits or the Marist Fathers, for example) towards the promotion of the Basque language.Google Scholar

66 Education, Public 5 Octuber 1933, file 60, folder 48, PMA.Google Scholar

67 Of the all the school inspectors in Navarre before July 1936, Mariano Lampreave was the only one to remain in Pamplona after the outbreak of the Civil War.Google Scholar

68 Chueca, J. El Nacionalismo Vasco en Navarra, 159.Google Scholar

69 Regulation of the Basque Schools of Pamplona, Archives, Society of Basque Studies, file Education.Google Scholar

70 Gela Urmeneta Arjanaute, “Recuerdos de la Escuela Vasca de Pamplona” [Memories of the Basque school of Pamplona], written account (1997), Archivo Federatión Navarra de Ikastolas, (Archives Navarre Federation of Ikastolas) henceforth AFNI.Google Scholar

71 Seven group photographs remain showing different grades and age groups of pupils at the Basque School of Pamplona.Google Scholar

72 This is also a feature of the Basque Schools of Biscay. See: Arrien, G. La generación del exilio [The Exiled Generación] (Bilbao: Onura, 1983), 111.Google Scholar

73 “Regulations of the Basque Schools of Pamplona.Google Scholar

74 Zabaleta, I. “La Enseñanza en los Orígenes del Nacionalismo Vasco,“ 342.Google Scholar

75 Euzko Ikastola Batza-Basque Schools Federation, Informe de la gestión del primer ejercicio, presentado por la Junta de Gobierno de “Eusko Ikastola Batza” 1932–1933 [First year management report presented by the “Euzko Ikastola Batza” 1932–1933 Board of Governors] (Bilbao: Biblioteca de la Diputación Foral de Bizkaia, 1933), unpublished.Google Scholar

76 These were not the only schools to adhere to the principles of the New School, however; as revealed by several researchers at the ISCHE 26 (International Standing Conference for the History of Education) held in Geneva in July 2004, the New School movement was gradually spreading through various regions of Spain.Google Scholar

77 A description of this proposal can be found in “Reglamento de las Escuela Vasca de Pamplona” (1932) file Instruction, Archivo de la Sociedad de Estudios Vascos.Google Scholar

78 Arrien, G. La generación del exilio, 98.Google Scholar

79 “La Escuela Vasca de Párvulos de Pamplona. Los examénes de fin de curso,” [The Basque Infants’ School of Pamplona. End of Year examinations] La Voz de Navarra (1 July 1932): 1; “En la Escuela Vasca. Exámenes y presentación de trabajos,” [In the Basque School. Examinations and Presentation of Work] La Voz de Navarra (1 July 1933): 1.Google Scholar

80 On the executive committee (Society for Basque Studies) we can see among other significant names: Baleztena, I. Esparza, E. Irigaray, A. Zalba, J. and the well-known Aguerre, a prominent member of the Basque Nationalist Party of Navarre.” I. Estornés, La Sociedad de Estudios Vascos, 43.Google Scholar

81 Pablo Archanco and Aingeru Irigarai.Google Scholar

82 Chueca, J. Nacionalismo Vasco en Navarra, 158.Google Scholar

83 Ibid., 159. From 1907 Isaac López Mendizabal was the printer of most of the books and written material published in Basque; he was the son of Eusebio López de Lodosa, a Navarrese printer who had settled in Tolosa.Google Scholar

84 On school texts, see: Dávila, P. Erriondo, L. “Los libros de Texto en euskera,“ in Historia Ilustrada del libro escolar en España (Madrid: Fundación Germán Sánchez Ruipérez, 1998).Google Scholar

85 Navarre's nationalist newspaper La Voz de Navarra, featured the communions of the pupils of the Basque School of Pamplona in LVN, 30 April 1933; 2 May 1933; 6 May 1934.Google Scholar

86 He was also a politician of acknowledged prestige, being a member of the Cortes (parliament in Madrid) and a Senator, and an intellectual (historian, linguist, editor, and journalist).Google Scholar

87 May 6th 1934 was a memorable day for our Basque School. The children celebrated their 1st Communion in the Chapel of the Escolapios and after the ceremony we accompanied them and their teachers to the home of D. Arturo Campión, now elderly and ailing, but greatly moved to hear a little girl of 10 give a short speech in Basque. The theme for the day was the reinstatement of our language in Pamplona, towards which the Basque School is contributing so much.” Gela Urmeneta Ajarnaute, “Recuerdos de la Escuela Vasca de Pamplona,” written account, (1997), AFNI. A photographic record of the visit still exists.Google Scholar

88 Basque Schools Federation, Informe de la gestión del primer ejercicio, presentado por la Junta de Gobierno de “Eusko Ikastola Batza” (Bilbao: Biblioteca de la Diputación Foral de Bizkaia, 1993), unpublished.Google Scholar

89 In the Basque provinces, O. Decroly is the most highly applauded exponent of the New Education. For a discussion about this autor see: Depaepe, M. Simon, F. Van Gorp, A., “The Canonization of Ovide Decroly as a ‘Saint’ of the New Education,” History of Education Quarterly 43–2 (2003): 224–249.Google Scholar

90 Basque School of Pamplona Regulations. A further reference is that of the Friends of the Basque Language in their 1933 management report which discusses the bilingual teaching programme at the School.Google Scholar

91 Elbira Zipitria Irastorza (Zumaia, 1906 – San Sebastian, 1982). For further biographical details, see: Euskerazaintzak, Zipitria'tar Elbire “Andereñoa” omenaldia (Donosita: Euskerazaintzak, 1986).Google Scholar

92 Pamplona (1907–1989).Google Scholar

93 Interview 1 (ex - pupil).Google Scholar

94 Pamplona (1895–1961).Google Scholar

95 Uribe-Etxebarria, A. (et. al.), “Emakume abertzaleak Nafarroan eta ideologiaren transmisioa: hurbilpen historikoa,” [Women nationalists in Navarre and the transmission of the ideology: an historical approach], III Congreso de Historia de Navarra, (1994), Navarra y Europa, Actas del Congreso editión CD. About women and Catholicism in Spain see: I. Blasco, Paradojas de la Ortodoxia (Zaragoza: Prensa Universitaria, 2003).Google Scholar

96 Other women, apart from these, made a decisive, though less acclaimed, contribution to furthering the nationalist and feminist cause, such as Catalina Alastuey. See Chueca, J. “Julia Fernandez Zabaleta eta Katalina Alastuey, emakume aitzindariak,“ Huarte de San Juan (Geografia e Historia) 2 (1995): 301.Google Scholar

97 “Application by Miss Julia Fernández for a grant to take part in the international course to be held in Barcelona in order to study the methods of the Italian Doctor Montessori,” Public Education, file 44, folder 10, PMA.Google Scholar

98 Navaz, E. Guibert “La mujer como educadora de párvulos: La influencia de Maria Montessori en las Escuelas Municipales de Pamplona,“ [Women as educators of young children: The influence of Maria Montessori in the Municipal Schools of Pamplona] in A.A., Mujer y Educatión en España, 1868–1975 (Santiago: VI Coloquio de Historia de la Educatión Universidad de Santiago, 1990), 467–473.Google Scholar

99 “Zabaleta Julia, Fernández, Memoria curso internacional Montessori, leaflet 69, PMA, (1916), 32. In this report, the young teacher showed herself to be highly critical of the pedagogical proposals put forward by Montessori; she was not prepared to “canonize”,–to use M. Depaepe's expression-the Italian expert. About this matter see the works of Leenders, Schwegmann and others who are nuancing the authenticity of the approach of Montessori, and indication the political character of it. For a French discussion article, see Paedagogica Historica 35–2 (1999): 425–431.Google Scholar

100 Ibid., 32.Google Scholar

101 Photos exist showing them together: “Cursos de Verano de 1932 en Pamplona, en su visita al Museo de la Cámara de Comptos” [1932 Summer Courses in Pamplona, visit to the Museum of the Chamber of Public Audit]. I. Estornés, La Sociedad de Estudios Vascos, 210, photograph.Google Scholar

102 Boletín de la Sociedad de Estudios Vascos 55 (1932): 11.Google Scholar

103 Arrien, G. La generación del exilio, 112.Google Scholar

104 “The “Gaztetxus” were very active at that time, before the war. Thousands of young people went there to learn dances and songs and to take part in plays, including many who had no connection with Basque. The whole of Pamplona used to go, whatever their ideology.” Interview 1 (ex-pupil), March 29, 1996.Google Scholar

105 On the importance of the Basque woman's role in cultural transmission, see: Del Valle, T., Las mujeres de Euskal Herria, Ayer y Hoy [The women of Euskal Herria, Past and Present] (Donostia: Egin biblioteka, 1996).Google Scholar

106 Chueca, J. El nacionalismo en Navarra (1936–1939) (Bilbao: Universidad del País Vasco, 1999), 160.Google Scholar

107 Councillor elect on the council of 1930, member of the executive committee of the Basque Nationalist Party in Navarre and Mayor of Estella. Executed by Franco's firing squads, Sept. 29, 1936.Google Scholar

108 Leitza, 1914/07/03-Pamplona, 2001/06/26.Google Scholar

109 Ha ayudado a las entidades que fomentan el euskera, como el Colegio de Lecároz (700 ptas.), Escuelas Vascas de Iruña y Estella (3.200 ptas.)” [aid to institutions where the Basque language is nurtured, such as the Lecaroz School (700 pesetas), Basque Schools of Iruña (Pamplona) and Estella (700 pesetas)] Management Report 1933 Friends of the Basque Language.Google Scholar

110 Interview 5 (ex-pupil).Google Scholar

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112 Interview 5 (ex-pupil).Google Scholar

113 Photocopy of the edict, in Altaffaylla Kultur Taldea, Navarra 1936. De la Esperanza al Terror, [From Hope to Terror] (Tafalla: Altaffaylla, 1992), 294.Google Scholar

114 Estornés, I. La Sociedad de Estudios Vascos, 209.Google Scholar

115 President of the Basque House opened by him in Elizondo in 1933. In 1934, he was democratically elected Mayor.Google Scholar

116 Interview 4 (teacher).Google Scholar

117 Arburua, Manuel Etxeberria, Bittori and Ariztia, Felicitas, among others.Google Scholar

118 Estornés, I. La Sociedad de Estudios Vascos, 209. This is the only mention we have found of this particular school.Google Scholar

119 Ibid., 209–212.Google Scholar

120 Izeta, Mariano in Altaffayla Kultur Taldea, Navarra 1936. De la esperanza al Terror (Tafalla: Altaffayla, 1992), 162.Google Scholar

121 Interview 4 (teacher).Google Scholar

122 For a deeper insight into the persecution and repression of the Basque language, see: Torrealdai, J.M. El libro negro del euskara (San Sebastian: Ttarttalo, 1998).Google Scholar

123 Numerous works deal with the repercussions of the Civil War and the Franco Regime in education. For a critical analysis, see Palacio, Irene Ruiz, & Cándido “Educational Historiography of the Franco Regime: Analysis and Critical Review,“ Paedagogica Historica 39, n° 3, (January 2003). With respect to Basque schooling see: Arrien, G. La generación del exilio. Génesis de las escuelas vascas y las colonias escolares 1932–40 (Bilbao: Onura, 1983); Rekalde, Itziar “La Gestión de la Enseñanza en Euskadi durante la Guerra Civil,” Historia de la Education 20 (2001): 333–367; Fernandez, Idoia “La escuela vasca y la larga historia de la postguerra,” in Balsera, P. Dávila (coord), Lengua, escuela y cultura. El proceso de alfabetización en Euskal Herria, siglos XIX y XX (Bilbao: Universidad del País Vasco, 1995) and López-Goñi, Irene “Ikastolas en Navarra: Antecedentes, Génesis y Proceso de Institucionalización,” in P. Dávila (coord), Las Políticas Educativas en el País Vasco durante el siglo XX (Madrid: Biblioteca Nueva, 2004).Google Scholar

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