Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-4rdrl Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-06-29T23:12:59.909Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Trajectories of maternal depressive symptoms from infancy through early childhood: The roles of perceived financial strain, social support, and intimate partner violence

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 April 2024

Seulki Ku Open the ORCID record for Seulki Ku [Opens in a new window] ,
Denise M. Werchan ,
Xin Feng  and
Clancy Blair
Seulki Ku*
Affiliation:
Erikson Institute, Chicago, IL, USA
Denise M. Werchan
Affiliation:
New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
Xin Feng
Affiliation:
The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
Clancy Blair
Affiliation:
New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
*
Corresponding author: S. Ku, Email: sku@erikson.edu
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Although new mothers are at risk of heightened vulnerability for depressive symptoms, there is limited understanding regarding changes in maternal depressive symptoms over the course of the postpartum and early childhood of their child’s life among rural, low-income mothers from diverse racial backgrounds. This study examined distinct trajectories of depressive symptoms among rural low-income mothers during the first five years of their child’s life, at 6, 15, 24, and 58 months, using data from the Family Life Project (N = 1,292). Latent class growth analysis identified four distinct trajectories of maternal depressive symptoms, including Low-decreasing (50%; n = 622), Low-increasing (26%; n = 324), Moderate-decreasing (13%; n = 156), and Moderate-increasing (11%; n = 131) trajectories. Multinomial logistic regression demonstrated that higher perceived financial strain and intimate partner violence, and lower social support predicted higher-risk trajectories (Low-increasing, Moderate-decreasing, and Moderate-increasing) relative to the Low-decreasing trajectory. Compared to the Low-decreasing trajectory, lower neighborhood safety/quietness predicted to the Low-increasing trajectory. Moreover, lower social support predicted the Moderate-increasing trajectory, the highest-risk trajectory, compared to those in Moderate-decreasing. The current analyses underscore the heterogeneity on patterns of depressive symptoms among rural, low-income mothers, and that the role of both proximal and broader contexts contributing to distinct trajectories of maternal depressive symptoms over early childhood.

Keywords

financial strainintimate partner violencematernal depressive symptomsneighborhood safetysocioeconomic statussocial support
Type
Regular Article
Information
Development and Psychopathology , First View , pp. 1 - 14
Check for updates
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2024. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adler, N. E., Epel, E. S., Castellazzo, G., & Ickovics, J. R. (2000). Relationship of subjective and objective social status with psychological and physiological functioning: Preliminary data in healthy white women. Health Psychology, 19(6), 586–592. https://doi.org/10.1037//0278-6133.19.6.586 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Adler, N. E., & Stewart, J. (2010). Health disparities across the lifespan: meaning, methods, and mechanisms. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1186, 5–23. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.05337.x CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ahmed, A., Bowen, A., Feng, C. X., & Muhajarine, N. (2019). Trajectories of maternal depressive and anxiety symptoms from pregnancy to five years postpartum and their prenatal predictors. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth, 19(1), 26. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-019-2177-y CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aisenberg, E. (2001). The effects of exposure to community violence upon Latina mothers and preschool children. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 23(4), 378–398. https://doi.org/10.1177/0739986301234003 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Asparouhov, T., & Muthén, B. (2014). Auxiliary variables in mixture modeling: Three-step approaches using Mplus. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 21(3), 329–341. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705511.2014.915181 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Asparouhov, T., & Muthén, B. (2021). Auxiliary variables in mixture modeling: Using the BCH method in Mplus to estimate a distal outcome model and an arbitrary secondary model. http://www.statmodel.com/examples/webnotes/webnote21.pdf.Google Scholar
Assari, S., Smith, J., Mistry, R., Farokhnia, M., & Bazargan, M. (2019). Substance use among economically disadvantaged African American older adults: Objective and subjective socioeconomic status. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(10), 1826. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16101826 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baker, E. R., Huang, R., Liu, Q., & Battista, C. (2021). Children’s poverty exposure and hot and cool executive functions: Differential impacts of parental financial strain. Journal of Cognition and Development, 22(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/15248372.2020.1853125 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barnett, M. A., & The Family Life Project Key Investigators (2008). Mother and grandmother parenting in low-income three-generation rural households. Journal of Marriage and Family, 70(5), 1241–1257. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2008.00563.x CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bauer, J. W., & Dolan, E. M. (2011). Rural families and work overview. In J. W. Bauer & E. M., Dolan (Eds.), Rural families and work: Context and problems (pp. 1–15). SpringerCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beck, C. T. (2001). Predictors of postpartum depression: An update. Nursing Research, 50(5), 275–285. https://doi.org/10.1097/00006199-200109000-00004 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Braveman, P., & Gottlieb, L. (2014). The social determinants of health: It’s time to consider the causes of the causes. Public Health Reports, 129, 19–31. https://doi.org/10.1177/00333549141291S206 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burchinal, M., Vernon-Feagans, L., Cox, M., & Key Family Life Project Investigators (2008). Cumulative social risk, parenting, and infant development in rural low-income communities. Parenting, Science and Practice, 8(1), 41–69. https://doi.org/10.1080/15295190701830672 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cammack, N. L., Lambert, S. F., & Ialongo, N. S. (2011). Discrepancies between community violence exposure and perceived neighborhood violence. Journal of Community Psychology, 39(1), 106–120. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.20421 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Campbell, S. B., Matestic, P., von Stauffenberg, C., Mohan, R., & Kirchner, T. (2007). Trajectories of maternal depressive symptoms, maternal sensitivity, and children’s functioning at school entry. Developmental Psychology, 43(5), 1202–1215. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.43.5.1202 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chang, J. C., Dado, D., Hawker, L., Cluss, P. A., Buranosky, R., Slagel, L., McNeil, M., & Scholle, S. H. (2010). Understanding turning points in intimate partner violence: Factors and circumstances leading women victims toward change. Journal of Women’s Health, 19(2), 251–259. https://doi.org/10.1089/jwh.2009.1568 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Choe, D. E., Deer, L. K., & Hastings, P. D. (2023). Latent class analysis of maternal depression from pregnancy through early childhood: Differences in children’s executive functions. Developmental Psychology, 59(8), 1452–1463. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0001540 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Choe, D. E., McDonough, S. C., Sameroff, A. J., & Lawrence, A. C. (2020). Postnatal trajectories of maternal depressive symptoms: Postpartum antecedents and differences in toddler adjustment. Infant Mental Health Journal, 41(2), 278–293. https://doi.org/10.1002/imhj.21843 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chow, A., Dharma, C., Chen, E., Mandhane, P. J., Turvey, S. E., Elliott, S. J., Becker, A. B., Subbarao, P., Sears, M. R., & Kozyrskyj, A. L. (2019). Trajectories of depressive symptoms and perceived stress from pregnancy to the postnatal period among Canadian women: Impact of employment and immigration. American Journal of Public Health, 109(S3), S197–S204. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2018.304624 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Christensen, A. L., Stuart, E. A., Perry, D. F., & Le, H. (2011). Unintended pregnancy and perinatal depression trajectories in low-income, high-risk hispanic immigrants. Prevention Science, 12(3), 289–299. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-011-0213-x CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group (1992). A developmental and clinical model for the prevention of conduct disorder: The FAST track program. Development and Psychopathology, 4, 509–527. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579400004855.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Conger, R. D., & Elder, G. H. (1994). Families in troubled times: Adapting to change in rural America. Aldine de Gruyter.Google Scholar
Conway, L. J., Cook, F., Cahir, P., Mensah, F., Reilly, S., Brown, S., Gartland, D., & Giallo, R. (2021). Intimate partner violence, maternal depression, and pathways to children’s language ability at 10 years. Journal of Family Psychology, 35(1), 112–122. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000804 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crnic, K., Greenberg, M., Ragzin, A., Robinson, N., & Basham, N. (1983). Effects of stress and social supports in mothers in premature and full term infants. Child Development, 54(1), 209–217. https://doi.org/10.2307/1129878 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crockenberg, S. B. (1981). Infant irritability, mother responsiveness, and social influences on the security of infant-mother attachment. Child Development, 52(3), 857–865. https://doi.org/10.2307/1129087 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crockenberg, S. B. (1987). Predictors and correlates of anger toward and punitive control of toddlers by adolescent mothers. Child Development, 58(4), 964–975. https://doi.org/10.2307/1130537 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cutrona, C. E., Wallace, G., & Wesner, K. A. (2006). Neighborhood characteristics and depression: An examination of stress processes. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15(4), 188–192. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8721.2006.00433.x CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
De Marco, A., & Vernon-Feagans, L. (2013). Rural neighborhood context, child care quality, and relationship to early language development. Early Education and Development, 24(6), 792–812. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2013.736036 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Denckla, C. A., Mancini, A. D., Consedine, N. S., Milanovic, S. M., Basu, A., Seedat, S., Spies, G., Henderson, D. C., Bonanno, G. A., & Koenen, K. C. (2018). Distinguishing postpartum and antepartum depressive trajectories in a large population-based cohort: The impact of exposure to adversity and offspring gender. Psychological Medicine, 48(7), 1139–1147. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291717002549 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Derogatis, L. (2000). Brief symptom inventory 18. NCS Pearson, Inc.Google Scholar
Derogatis, L. R. (1977). The SCL–90 manual: Scoring, administration and procedures for the SCL-90. John Hopkins University School of Medicine.Google Scholar
Derogatis, L. R. (2017). Symptom checklist-90-revised, brief symptom inventory, and BSI-18. In Maruish, M. E. (Eds.), Handbook of psychological assessment in primary care settings (2nd ed. pp. 599–629). Routledge.Google Scholar
Dietz, L. J., Jennings, K. D., Kelley, S. A., & Marshal, M. (2009). Maternal depression, paternal psychopathology, and toddlers’ behavior problems. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 38(1), 48–61. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374410802575362 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dill, B. T., & Myers, S. L. (2004). Rediscovering rural America. In Blau, J. R. (Ed.), Blackwell companion to sociology (pp. 196–210). Blackwell Publishing Ltd.Google Scholar
Enders, C. K., & Bandalos, D. L. (2001). The relative performance of full information maximum likelihood estimation for missing data in structural equation models. Structural Equation Modeling, 8(3), 430–457. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15328007SEM0803_5 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ertel, K. A., Rich-Edwards, J. W., & Koenen, K. C. (2011). Maternal depression in the United States: Nationally representative rates and risks. Journal of Women’s Health, 20(11), 1609–1617. https://doi.org/10.1089/jwh.2010.2657 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Familiar, I., Sikorskii, A., Murray, S., Ruisenor-Escudero, H., Nakasujja, N., Korneffel, C., Boivin, M., & Bass, J. (2019). Depression symptom trajectories among mothers living with HIV in rural Uganda. AIDS and Behavior, 23(12), 3411–3418. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-019-02465-0 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Feldman, R., Granat, A., Pariente, C., Kanety, H., Kuint, J., & Gilboa-Schechtman, E. (2009). Maternal depression and anxiety across the postpartum year and infant social engagement, fear regulation, and stress reactivity. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 48(9), 919–927. https://doi.org/10.1097/CHI.0b013e3181b21651 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Flanagan, T. J., White, H., & Carter, B. G. (2011). Differential impairments in emotion face recognition in postpartum and nonpostpartum depressed women. Journal of Affective Disorders, 128(3), 314–318. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2010.07.021 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Franzini, L., & Fernandez-Esquer, M. E. (2006). The association of subjective social status and health in low-income Mexican-origin individuals in Texas. Social Science & Medicine, 63(3), 788–804. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2006.01.009 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gauri, B. (2013). Contextualizing disparity reduction in rural health care: A call to action. Journal of Family Social Work, 16, 86–100, http://doi/101080/10522158.2012.736079 Google Scholar
Giallo, R., Pilkington, P., McDonald, E., Gartland, D., Woolhouse, H., & Brown, S. (2017). Physical, sexual and social health factors associated with the trajectories of maternal depressive symptoms from pregnancy to 4 years postpartum. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 52(7), 815–828. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-017-1387-8 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goodman, E., Huang, B., Schafer-Kalkhoff, T., & Adler, N. E. (2007). Perceived socioeconomic status: A new type of identity that influences adolescents’ self-rated health. Journal of Adolescent Health, 41(5), 479–487. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2007.05.020 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goodman, S. H., Rouse, M. H., Connell, A. M., Broth, M. R., Hall, C. M., & Heyward, D. (2011). Maternal depression and child psychopathology: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 14(1), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-010-0080-1 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Govindasamy, P., Green, K. E., & Olmos, A. (2020). Meta-analysis of the factor structure of the brief symptom inventory (BSI-18) using an aggregated co-occurrence matrix approach. Mental Health Review Journal, 25(4), 367–378. https://doi.org/10.1108/MHRJ-05-2020-0028 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goyal, D., Gay, C., & Lee, K. A. (2010). How much does low socioeconomic status increase the risk of prenatal and postpartum depressive symptoms in first-time mothers? Women’s Health Issues, 20(2), 96–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.whi.2009.11.003 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Groh, C. J. (2013). Depression in rural women: Implications for nurse practitioners in primary care settings. Journal of the American Association of Nurse Practitioners, 25(2), 84–90. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-7599.2012.00762.x CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gueron-Sela, N., Camerota, M., Willoughby, M. T., Vernon-Feagans, L., Cox, M. J., & The Family Life Project Key Investigators (2018). Maternal depressive symptoms, mother-child interactions, and children’s executive function. Developmental Psychology, 54(1), 71–82. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000389 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gunnar, M. R., & Hostinar, C. E. (2015). The social buffering of the hypothalamic-pituitary–adrenocortical axis in humans: Developmental and experiential determinants. Social Neuroscience, 10(5), 479–488. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470919.2015.1070747 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gustafsson, H. C., Cox, M. J., & The Family Life Project Key Investigators (2012). Relations among intimate partner violence, maternal depressive symptoms, and maternal parenting behaviors. Journal of Marriage and Family, 74(5), 1005–1020. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2012.01010.x CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Guyon-Harris, K., Huth-Bocks, A., Lauterbach, D., & Janisse, H. (2016). Trajectories of maternal depressive symptoms across the birth of a child: Associations with toddler emotional development. Archives of Women’s Mental Health, 19(1), 153–165. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00737-015-0546-8 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hakanen, H., Flykt, M., Sinervä, E., Nolvi, S., Kataja, E. L., Pelto, J., Karlsson, H., Karlsson, L., & Korja, R. (2019). How maternal pre- and postnatal symptoms of depression and anxiety affect early mother-infant interaction? Journal of Affective Disorders, 257, 83–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2019.06.048 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Halbreich, U., & Karkun, S. (2006). Cross-cultural and social diversity of prevalence of postpartum depression and depressive symptoms. Journal of Affective Disorders, 91(2), 97–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2005.12.051 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hamidia, A., Kheirkhah, F., Chehrazi, M., Basirat, Z., Ghadimi, R., Barat, S., Cuijpers, P., O’Connor, E., Mirtabar, S. M., & Faramarzi, M. (2022). Screening of psychiatric disorders in women with high-risk pregnancy: Accuracy of three psychological tools. Health Science Reports, 5(2), e518. https://doi.org/10.1002/hsr2.518 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Houghton, F., Keane, N., Lewis, C. A., Murphy, N., Houghton, S., & Dunne, C. (2013). Temporal stability of the brief symptom inventory 18 among Irish college students over four weeks. Social Behavior and Personality, 41(2), 197–198. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2013.41.2.197 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huang, X., King, C., & McAtee, J. (2018). Exposure to violence, neighborhood context, and health-related outcomes in low-income urban mothers. Health & Place, 54, 138–148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2018.09.008 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jedidi, K., Ramaswamy, V., & Desarbo, W. S. (1993). A maximum likelihood method for latent class regression involving a censored dependent variable. Psychometrika, 58(3), 375–394. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02294647 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, C. P. (2000). Levels of racism: A theoretic framework and a gardener’s tale. American Journal of Public Health, 90(8), 1212–1215. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.90.8.1212 Google Scholar
Jung, T., & Wickrama, K. A. S. (2008). An introduction to latent class growth analysis and growth mixture modeling. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 39(1), 302–317. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2007.00054.x CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kainz, K., Willoughby, M. T., Vernon-Feagans, L., Burchinal, M. R., & Family Life Project Investigators (2012). Modeling family economic conditions and young children’s development in rural United States: Implications for poverty research. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 33(4), 410–420. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10834-012-9287-2 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kikusui, T., Winslow, J. T., & Mori, Y. (2006). Social buffering: Relief from stress and anxiety. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 361(1476), 2215–2228. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2006.1941 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kim, D. (2008). Blues from the neighborhood? Neighborhood characteristics and depression. Epidemiologic Reviews, 30(1), 101–117. https://doi.org/10.1093/epirev/mxn009 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kim, D. H., Michalopoulos, L. M., & Voisin, D. R. (2021). Validation of the brief symptom inventory-18 among low-income African American adolescents exposed to community violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36(1-2), NP984–NP1002. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260517738778 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kim, Y., & Radoias, V. (2021). Subjective socioeconomic status, health, and early-life conditions. Journal of Health Psychology, 26(4), 595–604. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105319828137 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kingsbury, A. M., Hayatbakhsh, R., Mamun, A. M., Clavarino, A. M., Williams, G., & Najman, J. M. (2015). Trajectories and predictors of women’s depression following the birth of an infant to 21 years: A longitudinal study. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 19(4), 877–888. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10995-014-1589-6 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kiviruusu, O., Pietikäinen, J. T., Kylliäinen, A., Pölkki, P., Saarenpää-Heikkilä, O., Marttunen, M., Paunio, T., & Paavonen, E. J. (2020). Trajectories of mothers’ and fathers’ depressive symptoms from pregnancy to 24 months postpartum. Journal of Affective Disorders, 260, 629–637. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2019.09.038 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kohen, D. E., Leventhal, T., Dahinten, V. S., & McIntosh, C. N. (2008). Neighborhood disadvantage: Pathways of effects for young children. Child Development, 79(1), 156–169. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01117.x CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kotchick, B. A., Dorsey, S., & Heller, L. (2005). Predictors of parenting among African American single mothers: Personal and contextual factors. Journal of Marriage and Family, 67(2), 448–460. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0022-2445.2005.00127.x CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kozhimannil, K. B., Trinacty, C. M., Busch, A. B., Huskamp, H. A., & Adams, A. S. (2011). Racial and ethnic disparities in postpartum depression care among low-income women. Psychiatric Services, 62(6), 619–625. https://doi.org/10.1176/ps.62.6.pss6206_0619 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ku, S., & Blair, C. (2023). Profiles of early family environments and the growth of executive function: Maternal sensitivity as a protective factor. Development and Psychopathology, 35(1), 314–331. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579421000535 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ku, S., & Feng, X. (2023). Maternal depressive symptoms and the growth of child executive function: Mediation by maternal sensitivity. Journal of Family Psychology, 37(4), 421–431. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000832 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lee, B., & Park, H. J. (2020). Differences in infant development by trajectories of maternal perinatal depression: Based on Malawi mothers and children. Early Child Development and Care, 190(9), 1441–1454. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2018.1538978 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lega, I., Bramante, A., Lauria, L., Grussu, P., Dubini, V., Falcieri, M., Ghiani, M. C., Giordano, A., Guidomei, S., Mignuoli, A. D., Paris, S., Bettinelli, M. E., Proietti, P., Andreozzi, S., Brenna, V., Bucciarelli, M., Martelli, G., Ferraro, C., Torrisi, M., Carrozzino, D., & Donati, S. (2022). The psychological impact of COVID-19 among women accessing family care centers during pregnancy and the postnatal period in Italy. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(4), 1983. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19041983 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Li, M., Wang, M. C., Shou, Y., Zhong, C., Ren, F., Zhang, X., & Yang, W. (2018). Psychometric properties and measurement invariance of the brief symptom inventory-18 among chinese insurance employees. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 519. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00519 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lo, Y., Mendell, N. R., & Rubin, D. B. (2001). Testing the number of components in a normal mixture. Biometrika, 88, 767–778, https://doi.org/10.1093/biomet/88.3.767 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lovejoy, M. C., Graczyk, P. A., O’Hare, E., & Neuma, G. (2000). Maternal depression and parenting behavior: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 20(5), 561–592. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0272-7358(98)00100-7 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ludermir, A. B., Lewis, G., Valongueiro, S. A., de Araújo, T. V. B., Araya, R. (2010). Violence against women by their intimate partner during pregnancy and postnatal depression: A prospective cohort study. Lancet, 376(9744), 903–910. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60887-2 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lutgendorf, M. A. (2019). Intimate partner violence and women’s health. Obstetrics and Gynecology, 134(3), 470–480. https://doi.org/10.1097/AOG.0000000000003326 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Manuel, J. I., Martinson, M. L., Bledsoe-Mansori, S. E., & Bellamy, J. L. (2012). The influence of stress and social support on depressive symptoms in mothers with young children. Social Science & Medicine, 75(11), 2013–2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2012.07.034 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Masyn, K. (2013). Latent class analysis and finite mixture modeling. In Little, T. (Eds.), Oxford handbook of quantitative methods (pp. 551–611). Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
McCall-Hosenfeld, J. S., Phiri, K., Schaefer, E., Zhu, J., & Kjerulff, K. (2016). Trajectories of depressive symptoms throughout the peri- and postpartum period: Results from the first baby study. Journal of Women’s Health, 25(11), 1112–1121. https://doi.org/10.1089/jwh.2015.5310 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mollard, E., Hudson, D. B., Ford, A., & Pullen, C. (2016). An integrative review of postpartum depression in rural U.S. communities. Archives of Psychiatric Nursing, 30(3), 418–424. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apnu.2015.12.003 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mora, P. A., Bennett, I. M., Elo, I. T., Mathew, L., Coyne, J. C., & Culhane, J. F. (2009). Distinct trajectories of perinatal depressive symptomatology: Evidence from growth mixture modeling. American Journal of Epidemiology, 169(1), 24–32. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwn283 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Musliner, K. L., Munk-Olsen, T., Eaton, W. W., & Zandi, P. P. (2016). Heterogeneity in long-term trajectories of depressive symptoms: Patterns, predictors and outcomes. Journal of Affective Disorders, 192, 199–211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2015.12.030 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Muthén, B. (2003). Statistical and substantive checking in growth mixture modeling: Comment on Bauer and Curran. Psychological Methods, 8(3), 369–377.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998-2017). Mplus user’s guide (8th edn). Muthén & Muthén.Google Scholar
Nagy, E., Moore, S., Silveira, P. P., Meaney, M. J., Levitan, R. D., & Dubé, L. (2022). Low socioeconomic status, parental stress, depression, and the buffering role of network social capital in mothers. Journal of Mental Health, 31(3), 340–347. https://doi.org/10.1080/09638237.2020.1793118 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Newland, R. P., Crnic, K. A., Cox, M. J., Mills-Koonce, W. R., & The Family Life Project Key Investigators (2013). The family model stress and maternal psychological symptoms: Mediated pathways from economic hardship to parenting. Journal of Family Psychology, 27(1), 96–105. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031112 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
O’Hara, M. W., & McCabe, J. E. (2013). Postpartum depression: Current status and future directions. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 9(1), 379–407. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050212-185612 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
O’Hara, M. W., & Swain, A. M. (1996). Rates and risk of postpartum depression—a meta-analysis. International Review of Psychiatry, 8(1), 37–54. https://doi.org/10.3109/09540269609037816 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Odom, E. C., & Vernon-Feagans, L. (2010). Buffers of racial discrimination: Links with depression among rural African American mothers. Journal of Marriage and Family, 72(2), 346–359. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2010.00704.x CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Padrutt, E. R., DeJoseph, M. L., Wilson, S., Mills-Koonce, R., & Berry, D. (2023). Measurement invariance of maternal depressive symptoms across the first 2 years since birth and across racial group, education, income, primiparity, and age. Psychological Assessment, 35(8), 646–658. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0001242 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pratt, L. A., & Brody, D. J. (2008). Depression in the United States household population, 2005-2006. National Center for Health Statistics, 7, 1–8.Google Scholar
Prinz, U., Nutzinger, D. O., Schulz, H., Petermann, F., Braukhaus, C., & Andreas, S. (2013). Comparative psychometric analyses of the SCL-90-R and its short versions in patients with affective disorders. BMC Psychiatry, 13(1), Article–104. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-13-104 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Putnick, D. L., Sundaram, R., Bell, E. M., Ghassabian, A., Goldstein, R. B., Robinson, S. L., Vafai, Y., Gilman, S. E., & Yeung, E. (2020). Trajectories of maternal postpartum depressive symptoms. Pediatrics, 146(5), e20200857. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2020-0857 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sano, Y., Bolkan, C., & Mammen, S. (2020). Maternal depression and family health context: Tracking depression trajectories of rural, low-income mothers. Journal of Family Social Work, 23(3), 293–312. https://doi.org/10.1080/10522158.2019.1709244 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schulz, A. J., Israel, B. A., Zenk, S. N., Parker, E. A., Lichtenstein, R., Shellman-Weir, S., & Laura Klem, A. B. (2006). Psychosocial stress and social support as mediators of relationships between income, length of residence and depressive symptoms among African American women on detroit’s eastside. Social Science & Medicine, 62(2), 510–522. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2005.06.028 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schwarz, G. (1978). Estimating the dimension of a model. The Annals of Statistics, 6(2), 461–464.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shaw, D. S., Sitnick, S. L., Reuben, J., Dishion, T. J., & Wilson, M. N. (2016). Transactional effects among maternal depression, neighborhood deprivation, and child conduct problems from early childhood through adolescence: A tale of two low-income samples. Development and Psychopathology, 28(3), 819–836. https://doi.org/10.1017/S095457941600033X CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Simmons, L. A., Yang, N. Y., Wu, Q., Bush, H. M., & Crofford, L. J. (2015). Public and personal depression stigma in a rural American female sample. Archives of Psychiatric Nursing, 29(6), 407–412. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apnu.2015.06.015 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spitzer, C., Hammer, S., Löwe, B., Grabe, H. J., Barnow, S., Rose, M., Wingenfeld, K., Freyberger, H. J., & Franke, G. H. (2011). The short version of the brief symptom inventory (BSI -18): Preliminary psychometric properties of the German translation. Fortschritte der Neurologie-Psychiatrie, 79(9), 517–523. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0031-1281602 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stein, A., Arteche, A., Lehtonen, A., Craske, M., Harvey, A., Counsell, N., & Murray, L. (2010). Interpretation of infant facial expression in the context of maternal postnatal depression. Infant Behavior & Development, 33(3), 273–278, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infbeh.2010.03.002 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Straus, M., Hamby, S., Boney-McCoy, S., & Sugarman, D. (1996). The revised conflict tactics scales (CTS2): Development and preliminary psychometric data. Journal of Family Issues, 17(3), 283–316. https://doi.org/10.1177/019251396017003001 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Taraban, L., Shaw, D. S., Leve, L. D., Wilson, M. N., Dishion, T. J., Natsuaki, M. N., Neiderhiser, J. M., & Reiss, D. (2017). Maternal depression and parenting in early childhood: Contextual influence of marital quality and social support in two samples. Developmental Psychology, 53(3), 436–449. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000261 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tsai, A. C., Tomlinson, M., Comulada, W. S., & Rotheram-Borus, M. J. (2016). Intimate partner violence and depression symptom severity among South African women during pregnancy and postpartum: Population-based prospective cohort study. PLoS Medicine, 13(1), e1001943. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1001943 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Unger, D. G., & Powell, D. R. (1980). Supporting families under stress: The role of social networks. Family Relations, 29(4), 566–574. https://doi.org/10.2307/584473 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vernon-Feagans, L., Cox, M., & Family Life Project Key Investigators (2013). The family life project: An epidemiological and developmental study of young children living in poor rural communities. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 78(5), 1–150. https://doi.org/10.1111/mono.12046 vii.Google ScholarPubMed
Vliegen, N., Casalin, S., & Luyten, P. (2014). The course of postpartum depression: A review of longitudinal studies. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 22(1), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1097/HRP.0000000000000013 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vuong, Q. (1989). Likelihood ratio tests for model selection and non-nested hypotheses. Econometrica, 57(2), 307–333. https://doi.org/10.2307/1912557 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weinraub, M., & Wolf, B. (1983). Effects of stress and social supports on mother-child interactions in single- and two-parent families. Child Development, 54(5), 1297–1311. https://doi.org/10.2307/1129683 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wikman, A., Axfors, C., Iliadis, S. I., Cox, J., Fransson, E., & Skalkidou, A. (2020). Characteristics of women with different perinatal depression trajectories. Journal of Neuroscience Research, 98(7), 1268–1282. https://doi.org/10.1002/jnr.24390 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilkinson, R. G. (1999). Health, hierarchy, and social anxiety. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 896(1), 48–63. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1999.tb08104.x CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Williams, D. R., & Mohammed, S. A. (2009). Discrimination and racial disparities in health: Evidence and needed research. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 32(1), 20–47. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-008-9185-0 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wong, J., & Mellor, D. (2014). Intimate partner violence and women’s health and wellbeing: Impacts, risk factors and responses. Contemporary Nurse, 46(2), 170–179. https://doi.org/10.5172/conu.2014.46.2.170 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wu, Q., Feng, X., Hooper, E., & Ku, S. (2017). Maternal emotion socialization, depressive symptoms and child emotion regulation: Child emotionality as a moderator. Infant and Child Development, 26(1), e1979. https://doi.org/10.1002/icd.1979 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wu, Y. P., Selig, J. P., Roberts, M. C., & Steele, R. G. (2011). Trajectories of postpartum maternal depressive symptoms and children’s social skills. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 20(4), 414–423. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-010-9407-2 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zabora, J., Brintzenhofeszoc, K., Jacobsen, P., Curbow, B., Piantadosi, S., & Hooker, C. (2001). A new psychosocial screening instrument for use with cancer patients. Psychosomatics, 42(3), 241–246. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.psy.42.3.241 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed