Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-r5zm4 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-06-30T12:06:05.025Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Intergenerational transmission of mental health risk in refugee families: The role of maternal psychopathology and emotional availability

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  21 July 2023

Florian Scharpf Open the ORCID record for Florian Scharpf [Opens in a new window] ,
Markus Paulus ,
Natalie Christner ,
Luisa Beerbaum ,
Marina Kammermeier  and
Tobias Hecker Open the ORCID record for Tobias Hecker [Opens in a new window]
Florian Scharpf*
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany Institute for Interdisciplinary Research on Conflict and Violence, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany
Markus Paulus
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany
Natalie Christner
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany
Luisa Beerbaum
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany
Marina Kammermeier
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany
Tobias Hecker
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany Institute for Interdisciplinary Research on Conflict and Violence, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany
*
Corresponding author: Florian Scharpf; Email: florian.scharpf@uni-bielefeld.de
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

To prevent an intergenerational cycle of malfunction, it is crucial to understand how mothers’ exposure to traumatic war experiences contributes to their children’s vulnerability to mental health problems. This study examined the role of maternal psychopathology and mother–child emotional availability (EA) in the association between mothers’ trauma exposure and children’s mental health problems in a sample of 222 Burundian mother–child dyads living in refugee camps in Tanzania. Maternal and child EA were assessed through recorded observations of mother–child interactions. In structured clinical interviews, mothers reported on their lifetime exposure to traumatic events and their psychopathology and both mothers and fathers reported on children’s emotional and behavioral problems. Structural equation modeling showed that mothers’ higher trauma exposure was indirectly associated with higher levels of children’s mental health problems through higher levels of maternal psychopathology. Mothers’ higher trauma exposure was also directly associated with lower maternal EA in mother–child interactions, which was in turn related to higher levels of children’s mental health problems. The findings suggest that trauma exposure independently affects mothers’ mental health and their EA, which can contribute to children’s mental health problems. Interventions aiming to reduce mothers’ psychopathology and strengthen their EA may be beneficial for children’s well-being.

Keywords

Traumamental healthemotional availabilitymother–child relationshiprefugee
Type
Regular Article
Information
Development and Psychopathology , First View , pp. 1 - 14
Check for updates
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2023. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aebi, M., Giger, J., Plattner, B., Metzke, C. W., & Steinhausen, H. C. (2013). Problem coping skills, psychosocial adversities and mental health problems in children and adolescents as predictors of criminal outcomes in young adulthood. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 23(5), 283–293. https://doi.org/10.1007/S00787-013-0458-Y CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ainsworth, M., Blehar, M., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Altenhofen, S., Clyman, R., Little, C., Baker, M., & Biringen, Z. (2013). Attachment security in three-year-olds who entered substitute care in infancy. Infant Mental Health Journal, 34(5), 435–445. https://doi.org/10.1002/IMHJ.21401 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aran, P., Lewis, A., Watson, S., & Galbally, M. (2022). Major depression and generalised anxiety disorder: An analysis of the effects of remission status and comorbidity on mother-infant emotional availability in the perinatal period. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 78(4), 570–589. https://doi.org/10.1002/JCLP.23235 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Asner-Self, K. K., Schreiber, J. B., & Marotta, S. A. (2006). A cross-cultural analysis of the Brief Symptom Inventory-18. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 12(2), 367–375. https://doi.org/10.1037/1099-9809.12.2.367 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Badovinac, S. D., Pillai Riddell, R., Deneault, A. A., Martin, J., Bureau, J. F., & O’Neill, M. C. (2021). Associations between early childhood parent-child attachment and internalizing/externalizing symptoms: A systematic review and narrative synthesis. Marriage & Family Review, 57(7), 573–620. https://doi.org/10.1080/01494929.2021.1879984 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Banyard, V. L., Williams, L. M., & Siegel, J. A. (2003). The impact of complex trauma and depression on parenting: An exploration of mediating risk and protective factors. Child Maltreatment, 8(4), 334–349. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559503257106 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Betancourt, T. S., Yudron, M., Wheaton, W., & Smith-Fawzi, M. C. (2012). Caregiver and adolescent mental health in Ethiopian Kunama refugees participating in an emergency education program. Journal of Adolescent Health, 51(4), 357–365. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2012.01.001 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Biringen, Z. (2008). The emotional availability (EA) scales, middle childhood/youth version (child age: 6 years and above) (4th edn). Boulder, CO: emotionalavailability.com.Google Scholar
Biringen, Z., Derscheid, D., Vliegen, N., Closson, L., & Easterbrooks, M. A. (2014). Emotional availability (EA): Theoretical background, empirical research using the EA scales, and clinical applications. Developmental Review, 34(2), 114–167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2014.01.002 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bornstein, M. H., Suwalsky, J. T. D., Putnick, D. L., Gini, M., Venuti, P., de Falco, S., Heslington, M., & Zingman de Galperín, C. (2010). Developmental continuity and stability of emotional availability in the family: Two ages and two genders in child-mother dyads from two regions in three countries. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 34(5), 385–397. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025409339080 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bosquet Enlow, M., Egeland, B., Carlson, E., Blood, E., & Wright, R. J. (2014). Mother-infant attachment and the intergenerational transmission of posttraumatic stress disorder. Development and Psychopathology, 26(1), 41–65. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579413000515 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Branje, S. (2018). Development of parent-adolescent relationships: Conflict interactions as a mechanism of change. Child Development Perspectives, 12(3), 171–176. https://doi.org/10.1111/CDEP.12278 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brislin, R. W., Lonner, W. J., & Thorndike, R. M. (1973). Cross-cultural research methods. New York: John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Brumariu, L. E., & Kerns, K. A. (2010). Parent-child attachment and internalizing symptoms in childhood and adolescence: A review of empirical findings and future directions. Development and Psychopathology, 22(1), 177–203. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579409990344 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bryant, R. A., Bawaneh, A., Awwad, M., Al-Hayek, H., Giardinelli, L., Whitney, C., Jordans, M. J. D., Cuijpers, P., Sijbrandij, M., Ventevogel, P., Dawson, K., & Akhtar, A. (2022). Effectiveness of a brief group behavioral intervention for common mental disorders in Syrian refugees in Jordan: A randomized controlled trial. PLOS Medicine, 19(3), e1003949. https://doi.org/10.1371/JOURNAL.PMED.1003949 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bryant, R. A., Edwards, B., Creamer, M., O'Donnell, M., Forbes, D., Felmingham, K. L., Silove, D., Steel, Z., Nickerson, A., McFarlane, A. C., Van Hooff, M., & Hadzi-Pavlovic, D. (2018). The effect of post-traumatic stress disorder on refugees’ parenting and their children’s mental health: A cohort study. The Lancet Public Health, 3(5), e249–e258. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2468-2667(18)30051-3 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bureau, J-Fçois, Easterbrooks, M. A., & Lyons-Ruth, K. (2009). Maternal depressive symptoms in infancy: Unique contribution to children’s depressive symptoms in childhood and adolescence? Development and Psychopathology, 21(2), 519–537. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579409000285 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cartwright, K., El-Khani, A., Subryan, A., & Calam, R. (2015). Establishing the feasibility of assessing the mental health of children displaced by the Syrian conflict. Global Mental Health, 2, e8. https://doi.org/10.1017/gmh.2015.3 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Christie, H., Hamilton-Giachritsis, C., Alves-Costa, F., Tomlinson, M., & Halligan, S. L. (2019). The impact of parental posttraumatic stress disorder on parenting: A systematic review. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 10(1), 1550345. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2018.1550345 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cluver, L., Gardner, F., & Operario, D. (2007). Psychological distress amongst AIDS-orphaned children in urban South Africa. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48(8), 755–763. https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1469-7610.2007.01757.X CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cohen, E., & Shulman, C. (2019). Mothers and toddlers exposed to political violence: Severity of exposure, emotional availability, parenting stress, and toddlers’ behavior problems. Journal of Child and Adolescent Trauma, 12(1), 131–140. https://doi.org/10.1007/S40653-017-0197-1/TABLES/3 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Colonnesi, C., Zeegers, M. A. J., Majdandžić, M., van Steensel, F. J. A., & Bögels, S. M. (2019). Fathers’ and mothers’ early mind-mindedness predicts social competence and behavior problems in childhood. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 47(9), 1421–1435. https://doi.org/10.1007/S10802-019-00537-2/TABLES/3 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cooke, J. E., Deneault, A. A., Devereux, C., Eirich, R., Fearon, R. M. P., & Madigan, S. (2022). Parental sensitivity and child behavioral problems: A meta-analytic review. Child Development, 93(5), 1231–1248. https://doi.org/10.1111/CDEV.13764 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cooke, J. E., Racine, N., Plamondon, A., Tough, S., & Madigan, S. (2019). Maternal adverse childhood experiences, attachment style, and mental health: Pathways of transmission to child behavior problems. Child Abuse and Neglect, 93, 27–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CHIABU.2019.04.011 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Costa, D., Biddle, L., & Bozorgmehr, K. (2021). Association between psychosocial functioning, health status and healthcare access of asylum seekers and refugee children: A population-based cross-sectional study in a German federal state. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 15(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1186/S13034-021-00411-4/TABLES/4 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cuijpers, P., Weitz, E., Karyotaki, E., Garber, J., & Andersson, G. (2015). The effects of psychological treatment of maternal depression on children and parental functioning: A meta-analysis. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 24(2), 237–245. https://doi.org/10.1007/S00787-014-0660-6/TABLES/3 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
De Haene, L., Grietens, H., & Verschueren, K. (2010). Adult attachment in the context of refugee traumatisation: The impact of organized violence and forced separation on parental states of mind regarding attachment. Attachment & Human Development, 12(3), 249–264. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616731003759732 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dekel, R., & Goldblatt, H. (2008). Is there intergenerational transmission of trauma? The case of combat veteran’s children. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 78(3), 281–289.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Derogatis, L. R. (2000). BSI-18: BriefSymptom Inventory 18 - Administration, scoring, and procedures manual. Minneapolis, MN: NCS Pearson.Google Scholar
Dozio, E., Feldman, M., Bizouerne, C., Drain, E., Laroche Joubert, M., Mansouri, M., Moro, M. R., & Ouss, L. (2020). The transgenerational transmission of trauma: The effects of maternal PTSD in mother-infant interactions. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 11, 1347. https://doi.org/10.3389/FPSYT.2020.480690/BIBTEX CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Easterbrooks, M. A., Bureau, J. F., & Lyons-Ruth, K. (2012). Developmental correlates and predictors of emotional availability in mother-child interaction: A longitudinal study from infancy to middle childhood. Development and Psychopathology, 24(1), 65–78. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579411000666 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Egan, M., Daly, M., & Delaney, L. (2015). Childhood psychological distress and youth unemployment: Evidence from two British cohort studies. Social Science & Medicine, 124, 11–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.SOCSCIMED.2014.11.023 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eltanamly, H., Leijten, P., Jak, S., & Overbeek, G. (2019). Parenting in times of war: A meta-analysis and qualitative synthesis of war exposure, parenting, and child adjustment. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 22(1), 147–160. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838019833001 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Erickson, N., Julian, M., & Muzik, M. (2019). Perinatal depression, PTSD, and trauma: Impact on mother-infant attachment and interventions to mitigate the transmission of risk. International Review of Psychiatry, 31(3), 245–263. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540261.2018.1563529 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ertl, V., Pfeiffer, A., Saile, R., Schauer, E., Elbert, T., & Neuner, F. (2010). Validation of a mental health assessment in an African conflict population. Psychological Assessment, 22(2), 318–324. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018810 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Feldman, R., Vengrober, A., Eidelman-Rothman, M., & Zagoory-Sharon, O. (2013). Stress reactivity in war-exposed young children with and without posttraumatic stress disorder: Relations to maternal stress hormones, parenting, and child emotionality and regulation. Development and Psychopathology, 25(4pt1), 943–955. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579413000291 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Field, N. P., Muong, S., & Sochanvimean, V. (2013). Parental styles in the intergenerational transmission of trauma stemming from the Khmer Rouge regime in Cambodia. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 83(4), 483–494. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajop.12057 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Flanagan, N., Travers, A., Vallières, F., Hansen, M., Halpin, R., Sheaf, G., Rottmann, N., Johnsen, A. T. (2020). Crossing borders: A systematic review identifying potential mechanisms of intergenerational trauma transmission in asylum-seeking and refugee families. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 11(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1790283 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goodman, A., Joyce, R., & Smith, J. P. (2011). The long shadow cast by childhood physical and mental problems on adult life. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 108(15), 6032–6037. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1016970108 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goodman, R. (1997). The strengths and difficulties questionnaire: A research note. Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry, 35(5), 581–586. https://doi.org/10.1111/cge.12538 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goodman, R., Ford, T., Simmons, H., Gatward, R., & Meltzer, H. (2000). Using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) to screen for child psychiatric disorders in a community sample. British Journal of Psychiatry, 177(06), 534–539. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.177.6.534 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goodman, R., Meltzer, H., & Bailey, V. (1998). The strengths and difficulties questionnaire: A pilot study on the validity of the self-report version. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 7(3), 125–130. https://doi.org/10.1007/s007870050057 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goodman, S. H., Rouse, M. H., Connell, A. M., Robbins Broth, M., Hall, C. M., & Heyward, D. (2011). Maternal depression and child psychopathology: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 14(1), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-010-0080-1 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Greene, C. A., Chan, G., McCarthy, K. J., Wakschlag, L. S., & Briggs-Gowan, M. J. (2018). Psychological and physical intimate partner violence and young children’s mental health: The role of maternal posttraumatic stress symptoms and parenting behaviors. Child Abuse & Neglect, 77, 168–179. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CHIABU.2018.01.012 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greene, C. A., McCarthy, K. J., Estabrook, R., Wakschlag, L. S., & Briggs-Gowan, M. J. (2020). Responsive parenting buffers the impact of maternal PTSD on young children. Parenting, Science and Practice, 20(2), 141–165. https://doi.org/10.1080/15295192.2019.1707623 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hartzell, G., Stenson, A. F., van Rooij, S. J. H., Kim, Y. J., Vance, L. A., Hinrichs, R., Kaslow, N.,Bradley, B., & Jovanovic, T. (2022). Intergenerational effects of maternal PTSD: Roles of parenting stress and child sex. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy. https://doi.org/10.1037/TRA0000542 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hecker, T., Fetz, S., Ainamani, H., & Elbert, T. (2015). The cycle of violence: Associations between exposure to violence, trauma-related symptoms and aggression--findings from Congolese refugees in Uganda. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 28(5):448–455. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22046 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hermenau, K., Hecker, T., Schaal, S., Maedl, A., & Elbert, T. (2013). Addressing post-traumatic stress and aggression by means of narrative exposure: a randomized controlled trial with ex-combatants in the eastern DRC. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 22(8), 916–934. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926771.2013.824057 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holmbeck, G. N., Li, S. T., Schurman, J. V., Friedman, D., & Coakley, R. M. (2002). Collecting and managing multisource and multimethod data in studies of pediatric populations. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 27(1), 5–18. https://doi.org/10.1093/JPEPSY/27.1.5 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Human Rights Watch (2017). World Report 2017: Burundi. https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2017/country-chapters/burundi Google Scholar
Ibrahim, H., Ertl, V., Catani, C., Ismail, A. A., & Neuner, F. (2018). The validity of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5) as screening instrument with Kurdish and Arab displaced populations living in the Kurdistan region of Iraq. BMC Psychiatry, 18(1), 259. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-018-1839-z CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Irankunda, P., Heatherington, L., & Fitts, J. (2017). Local terms and understandings of mental health problems in Burundi. Transcultural Psychiatry, 54(1), 66–85. https://doi.org/10.1177/1363461516689004 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaltenbach, E., Härdtner, E., Hermenau, K., Schauer, M., & Elbert, T. (2017). Efficient identification of mental health problems in refugees in Germany: The Refugee Health Screener. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 8(Suppl 2), 1389205. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2017.1389205 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kammermeier, M., & Paulus, M. (2022). Maternal sensitivity and non-intrusiveness at 12 months predict attention to emotional facial expressions at 24 months: A cross-lagged panel approach. Social Development, 31(2), 319–338. https://doi.org/10.1111/SODE.12561 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koren-Karie, N., Oppenheim, D., & Getzler-Yosef, R. (2008). Shaping children’s internal working models through mother-child dialogues: The importance of resolving past maternal trauma. Attachment and Human Development, 10(4), 465–483. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616730802461482 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kumar, S. A., Franz, M. R., Brock, R. L., & DiLillo, D. (2020). Posttraumatic stress and parenting behaviors: The mediating role of emotion regulation. Journal of Family Violence, 35(5), 417–426. https://doi.org/10.1007/S10896-019-00124-5 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lambert, J. E., Holzer, J., & Hasbun, A. (2014). Association between parents’ PTSD severity and children’s psychological distress: A meta-analysis. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 27(1), 9–17. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.21891 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Letourneau, N. L., Fedick, C. B., & Willms, J. D. (2007). Mothering and domestic violence: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of Family Violence, 22(8), 649–659. https://doi.org/10.1007/S10896-007-9099-6/TABLES/5 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levendosky, A. A., Huth-Bocks, A. C., Shapiro, D. L., & Semel, M. A. (2003). The impact of domestic violence on the maternal - child relationship and preschool-age children’s functioning. Journal of Family Psychology, 17(3), 275–287. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.17.3.275 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Licata, M., Kristen, S., & Sodian, B. (2016). Mother-child interaction as a cradle of theory of mind: The role of maternal emotional availability. Social Development, 25(1), 139–156. https://doi.org/10.1111/SODE.12131 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lovejoy, M. C., Graczyk, P. A., O’Hare, E., & Neuman, G. (2000). Maternal depression and parenting behavior: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 20(5), 561–592.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lyons-Ruth, K., & Block, D. (1996). The disturbed caregiving system: Relations among childhood trauma, maternal caregiving, and infant affect and attachment. Infant Mental Health Journal, 17(3), 257–275. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-0355(199623)17:3<257::AID-IMHJ5>3.0.CO;2-L 3.0.CO;2-L>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacMillan, K. K., Lewis, A. J., Watson, S. J., Jansen, B., & Galbally, M. (2020). Maternal trauma and emotional availability in early mother-infant interaction: Findings from the Mercy Pregnancy and Emotional Well-being Study (MPEWS) cohort. Attachment & Human Development, 23(6), 853–875. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616734.2020.1790116 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Madigan, S., Wade, M., Plamondon, A., Maguire, J. L., & Jenkins, J. M. (2017). Maternal adverse childhood experience and infant health: Biomedical and psychosocial risks as intermediary mechanisms. The Journal of Pediatrics, 187, 282–289.e1. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JPEDS.2017.04.052 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miller, K. E., & Rasmussen, A. (2017). The mental health of civilians displaced by armed conflict: An ecological model of refugee distress. Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences, 26(2), 129–138. https://doi.org/10.1017/S2045796016000172 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moehler, E., Biringen, Z., & Poustka, L. (2007). Emotional availability in a sample of mothers with a history of abuse. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 77(4), 624–628. https://doi.org/10.1037/0002-9432.77.4.624 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moreno, A. J., Klute, M. M., & Robinson, J. L. (2008). Relational and individual resources as predictors of empathy in early childhood. Social Development, 17(3), 613–637. https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1467-9507.2007.00441.X CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Najman, J. M., Williams, G. M., Nikles, J., Spence, S., Bor, W., O'Callaghan, M., Le Brocque, R., Andersen, M. J., Shuttlewood, G. J. (2001). Bias influencing maternal reports of child behaviour and emotional state. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 36(4), 186–194. https://doi.org/10.1007/S001270170062 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Neuner, F., Onyut, P. L., Ertl, V., Odenwald, M., Schauer, E., & Elbert, T. (2008). Treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder by trained lay counselors in an African refugee settlement: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 76(4), 686–694. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.76.4.686 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Neuner, F., Schauer, M., Karunakara, U., Klaschik, C., Robert, C., & Elbert, T. (2004). Psychological trauma and evidence for enhanced vulnerability for posttraumatic stress disorder through previous trauma among West Nile refugees. BMC Psychiatry, 4(1), 34. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-4-34 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Oppenheim, D. (2012). Emotional availability: Research advances and theoretical questions. Development and Psychopathology, 24(1), 131–136. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579411000721 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Palosaari, E., Punamäki, R. L., Qouta, S., & Diab, M. (2013). Intergenerational effects of war trauma among Palestinian families mediated via psychological maltreatment. Child Abuse and Neglect, 37(11), 955–968. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.04.006 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Panter-Brick, C., Grimon, M. P., & Eggerman, M. (2014). Caregiver - child mental health: A prospective study in conflict and refugee settings. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 55(4), 313–327. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12167 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Puffer, E. S., Annan, J., Sim, A. L., Salhi, C., & Betancourt, T. S. (2017). The impact of a family skills training intervention among Burmese migrant families in Thailand: A randomized controlled trial. PLOS ONE, 12(3), e0172611. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0172611 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Putnick, D. L., Bornstein, M. H., & Suwalsky, J. T. D. (2022). Mother-child emotional availability across cultures: Findings from western and non-western countries. In Selin, H. (Eds.), Parenting across cultures. Science across cultures: The history of non-western science. vol. 12, p. 285–305). Cham: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-15359-4_19 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pynoos, R. S., & Steinberg, A. M. (2015). The University of California, Los Angeles, Post-traumatic Stress Disorder Reaction Index (UCLA PTSD Index) for the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th edn). Los Angeles: University of Californa.Google Scholar
Ranson, K. E., & Urichuk, L. J. (2008). The effect of parent-child attachment relationships on child biopsychosocial outcomes: A review. Early Child Development and Care, 178(2), 129–152. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430600685282 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rasmussen, A., Nguyen, L., Wilkinson, J., Vundla, S., Raghavan, S., Miller, K. E., & Keller, A. S. (2010). Rates and impact of trauma and current stressors among darfuri refugees in Eastern Chad. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 80(2), 227–236. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-0025.2010.01026.x CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rieder, A. D., Roth, S. L., Musyimi, C., Ndetei, D., Sassi, R. B., Mutiso, V., Hall, G. B., & Gonzalez, A. (2019). Impact of maternal adverse childhood experiences on child socioemotional function in rural Kenya: Mediating role of maternal mental health. Developmental Science, 22(5), e12833. https://doi.org/10.1111/DESC.12833 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosseel, Y. (2012). lavaan: An R package for structural equation modeling. R package version 0.5-15 http://lavaan.org. Journal of Statistical Software, 48(2), 1–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Samuelson, K. W., Wilson, C. K., Padrón, E., Lee, S., & Gavron, L. (2017). Maternal PTSD and children’s adjustment: Parenting stress and emotional availability as proposed mediators. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 73(6), 693–706. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.22369 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sangalang, C. C., & Vang, C. (2017). Intergenerational trauma in refugee families: A systematic review. Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health, 19(3), 745–754. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10903-016-0499-7 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Saunders, H., Kraus, A., Barone, L., & Biringen, Z. (2015). Emotional availability: Theory, research, and intervention. Frontiers in Psychology, 6(JUL), 1–5. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01069 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Scharpf, F., Kaltenbach, E., Nickerson, A., & Hecker, T. (2020). A systematic review of socio-ecological factors contributing to risk and protection of the mental health of refugee children and adolescents. Clinical Psychology Review, 101930. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2020.101930 Google ScholarPubMed
Scharpf, F., Mkinga, G., Neuner, F., Machumu, M., & Hecker, T. (2020). Fuel to the fire: The escalating interplay of attachment and maltreatment in the transgenerational transmission of psychopathology in families living in refugee camps. Development and Psychopathology, 33(4), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579420000516 Google Scholar
Schechter, D. S., Coates, S. W., Kaminer, T., Coots, T., Zeanah, C. H. Jr., Davies, M., Schonfeld, I. S., Marshall, R. D., Liebowitz, M. R., Trabka, K. A., McCaw, J. E., & Myers, M. M. (2008). Distorted maternal mental representations and atypical behavior in a clinical sample of violence-exposed mothers and their toddlers. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation: The Official Journal of the International Society for the Study of Dissociation (ISSD), 9(2), 123–147. https://doi.org/10.1080/15299730802045666 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schechter, D. S., Coots, T., Zeanah, C. H., Davies, M., Coates, S. W., Trabka, K. A., Marshall, R. D., Liebowitz, M. R., & Myers, M. M. (2005). Maternal mental representations of the child in an inner-city clinical sample: Violence-related posttraumatic stress and reflective functioning. Attachment & Human Development, 7(3), 313–331. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616730500246011 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schechter, D. S., Moser, D. A., Reliford, A., McCaw, J. E., Coates, S. W., Turner, J. B., Serpa, S. R., & Willheim, E. (2015). Negative and distorted attributions towards child, self, and primary attachment figure among posttraumatically stressed mothers: What changes with Clinician Assisted Videofeedback Exposure Sessions (CAVES). Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 46(1), 10–20. https://doi.org/10.1007/S10578-014-0447-5/TABLES/4 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sim, A., Bowes, L., & Gardner, F. (2018). Modeling the effects of war exposure and daily stressors on maternal mental health, parenting, and child psychosocial adjustment: A cross-sectional study with Syrian refugees in Lebanon. Global Mental Health, 5, e40. https://doi.org/10.1017/gmh.2018.33 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Song, S. J., Tol, W., & de Jong, J. T. V. M. (2014). Indero: Intergenerational trauma and resilience between burundian former child soldiers and their children. Family Process, 53(2), 239–251. https://doi.org/10.1111/famp.12071 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sroufe, L. A., Egeland, B., Carlson, E., & Collins, W. A. (2005). Placing early attachment experiences in developmental context: The Minnesota longitudinal study. In Grossmann, K. E., Grossmann, K., & Waters, E. (Eds.), Attachment from infancy to adulthood: The major longitudinal studies (pp. 48–70). Guilford Publications.Google Scholar
Steel, Z., Chey, T., Silove, D., Marnane, C., Bryant, R. A., & Van Ommeren, M. (2009). Association of torture and other potentially traumatic events with mental health outcomes among populations exposed to mass conflict and displacement: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association, 302(5), 537–549. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2009.1132 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sveen, J., Bondjers, K., & Willebrand, M. (2016). Psychometric properties of the PTSD Checklist for DSM-5: A pilot study. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 7(1), 30165. https://doi.org/10.3402/ejpt.v7.30165 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
UNHCR (2018a). Global Trends: Forced Displacement in 2017. Geneva. Retrieved from, https://www.unhcr.org/5b27be547.pdf Google Scholar
UNHCR (2018b). Burundi situation: Regional inter agency plan of action for the protection of refugee children. Geneva. Retrieved from, https://www.unhcr.org/5a683fdf7.pdf Google Scholar
Uvin, P. (2009). Life after violence: A people’s story of Burundi. Zed Books.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van Ee, E., Kleber, R. J., & Jongmans, M. J. (2016). Relational patterns between caregivers with PTSD and their nonexposed children. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 17(2), 186–203. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838015584355 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van Ee, E., Kleber, R. J., & Mooren, T. T. M. (2012). War trauma lingers on: Associations between maternal posttraumatic stress disorder, parent-child interaction, and child development. Infant Mental Health Journal, 33(5), 459–468. https://doi.org/10.1002/imhj.21324 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van Ee, E., Sleijpen, M., Kleber, R. J., & Jongmans, M. J. (2013). Father-involvement in a refugee sample: Relations between posttraumatic stress and caregiving. Family Process, 52(4), 723–735. https://doi.org/10.1111/famp.12045 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Verhey, R., Chibanda, D., Gibson, L., Brakarsh, J., & Seedat, S. (2018). Validation of the posttraumatic stress disorder checklist - 5 (PCL-5) in a primary care population with high HIV prevalence in Zimbabwe. BMC Psychiatry, 18(1), 109. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-018-1688-9 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Volling, B. L., Oh, W., Gonzalez, R., Bader, L. R., Tan, L., & Rosenberg, L. (2021). Changes in children’s attachment security to mother and father after the birth of a sibling: Risk and resilience in the family. Development and Psychopathology, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579421001310 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weathers, F. W., Litz, B. T., Keane, T. M., Palmieri, P. A., Marx, B. P., & Schnurr, P. P. The PTSD Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5), 2013). Retrieved May 16, 2019, from National Center for PTSD website. https://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/assessment/adult-sr/ptsd-checklist.asp Google Scholar
Wurster, H. E., Sarche, M., Trucksess, C., Morse, B., & Biringen, Z. (2020). Parents’ adverse childhood experiences and parent-child emotional availability in an American Indian community: Relations with young children’s social-emotional development. Development and Psychopathology, 32(2), 425–436. https://doi.org/10.1017/S095457941900018X CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yehuda, R., & Lehrner, A. (2018). Intergenerational transmission of trauma effects: Putative role of epigenetic mechanisms. World Psychiatry, 17(3), 243–257. https://doi.org/10.1002/WPS.20568 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yousafzai, A. K., Rasheed, M. A., Rizvi, A., Armstrong, R., & Bhutta, Z. A. (2015). Parenting skills and emotional availability: An RCT. Pediatrics, 135(5), e1247–e1257. https://doi.org/10.1542/PEDS.2014-2335 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ziv, Y., Aviezer, O., & Koren-Karie, N. (2000). Emotional availability in the mother-infant dyad as related to the quality of infant-mother attachment relationship. Attachment & Human Development, 2(2), 149–169. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616730050085536 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Supplementary material: File

Scharpf et al. supplementary material

Table S1

Download Scharpf et al. supplementary material(File)
File 15.9 KB