² Kamose Stele II, lines 13–5; translation following Pritchard, J. B. (ed), Ancient Near Eastern Texts (Princeton, 1969), 554–5Google Scholar; Habachi, L., The Second Stele of Kamose (Glückstadt, 1972), 37, 49Google Scholar; Redford, D. B., Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times (Princeton, 1992), 120Google Scholar; id., ‘Textual sources for the Hyksos period’, in Oren 1997, 14.

³ Cf. Hayes, W. C., The Scepter of Egypt II: The Hyksos Period and the New Kingdom (1675–1080 BC) (New York, 1959), 42Google Scholar; Kitchen, K. A., ‘The basics of Egyptian chronology in relation to the bronze age’, in Åström, P. (ed), High, Middle or Low? (Acts of an International Colloquium on Absolute Chronology Held at the University of Gothenburg 20th–22nd August 1987), Pt. 1 (Göteborg, 1987), 52Google Scholar; Grimal, N., A History of Ancient Egypt (Oxford, 1992), 193Google Scholar; P. M. Warren, ‘Minoan Crete and Pharaonic Egypt’, in Davies and Schofield 1995, 4; J. M. Weinstein, ‘Reflections on the chronology of Tell el-Dab^ca’, in Davies and Schofield 1995, 85; Foster, K. P. and Ritner, R. K., ‘Texts, storms, and the Thera eruption’, JNES 55 (1996), 9–10Google Scholar; Bietak 1996, 81; D. O'Connor, ‘The Hyksos period in Egypt’, in Oren 1997, 45, 56.

⁴ Cf. Hayes (n. 3), 11–39; Redford (n. 2), 115–16; Bernal, M., Black Athena: The Afroasiatic Roots of Classical Civilisation, ii: The Archaeological and Documentary Evidence (New Brunswick, NJ, 1991). 352–5Google Scholar.

⁵ Cf. translations and discussions in Pritchard (n. 2), 233–4; Redford (n. 2), 128–9; Grimal (n. 3), 193–4; Clayton, P. A., Chronicle of the Pharaohs (London, 1994), 97Google Scholar.

⁶ David O'Connor has recently published a user-friendly map and concise accompanying description of the remains visible and/or excavated by Bietak at the site: ‘Tell el-Dab^ca and its environs actually consists of three tells, or occupation mounds. The northeastern (and its possible outliers in the northwestern quadrant of the general region) is New Kingdom in date … a centrally located mound represents a substantial Twelfth Dynasty town, which expanded in size in the Thirteenth and Fifteenth Dynasties. Immediately to the southwest, another tell had some Twelfth Dynasty occupation, but expanded greatly during the Thirteenth and the Fifteenth. This tell, on present evidence, housed the palace and associated structures of the Fifteenth Dynasty pharaohs (i.e., the Hyksos of the Fifteenth Dynasty)’; O'Connor (n. 3), 53 with figure 2.6.

⁷ Bietak 1997. The underlying data and accompanying illustrations contained in these two most recent publications by Bietak are substantially the same, but the text and discussions are somewhat different, apparently due in part to extensive editing of Bietak's contribution to Oren's volume by Stephen Harvey; cf. Bietak 1997, 129 n. 1. Observant readers of German will also note a similarity between these two publications and much of Bietak's contribution to the catalogue accompanying the Tell el-Dab^ca exhibition in Vienna (Bietak 1994). Cf. now also, in French, Bietak, M., ‘Avaris: Tell-el Dab^ca’, Les Dossiers d'archéologie 213 (1996), 16–23Google Scholar.

⁸ Bietak 1996, 67–70, 72, figures 3, 55; id. 1997, 87, 115–17, 124, figures 4.3, 4.28; id. 1995, 20–1, figures 1–2.

⁹ Bietak 1996, 81.

¹⁰ Ibid. 82; id. 1997, 125.

¹¹ Cf. Helck, W. in LÄ iv (1982), 990Google Scholar; Jeffrey, D. G., Survey of Memphis I (London, 1985), 48 and 107Google Scholar nn. 385–8.

¹² Bietak 1996, 82–3; id., Avaris and Pi-Ramesse (Oxford, 1981), passim.

¹³ Habachi (n. 2), 16, 20.

¹⁴ Cf. J. S. Holladay, Jr., ‘The eastern Nile Delta during the Hyksos and pre-Hyksos periods: toward a systemic/socioeconomic understanding’, in Oren 1997, 201, 209.

¹⁵ Cf. Giveon, R., ‘Hyksos scarabs with names of kings and officials from Canaan’, Chronique d'Égypte, 49 (1974), 222–33CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Weinstein, J. M., ‘The Egyptian empire in Palestine: a reassessment’, BASOR 241 (1981), 8–10Google Scholar, fig. 2; Redford (n. 2), 113, 119; O'Connor (n. 3), 45, 62–3. Note, however, Redford 1997 (n. 2), 21: ‘The Hyksos artifacts in Nubia attest to nothing more than trade via the oasis route.’

¹⁶ Kamose Stele II, 19–24; cf. Pritchard (n. 2), 555; Habachi (n. 2), 39, 49; Grimal (n. 3), 191–2; Redford 1997 (n. 2), 14–15.

¹⁷ Cf. Devéria, T., ‘Lettre à M. Auguste Mariette sur quelques monuments relatifs aux Hyq-Sos ou antérieurs à leur domination’, Revue archéologique, 4 (1861), 256–9Google Scholar; Stock, H., ‘Der Hyksos Chian in Boğazköy’, MDÖG 94 (1963), 73–80Google Scholar; Smith, W. Stevenson, Interconnections in the Ancient Near East (New Haven, 1965), 20–1, 28–9Google Scholar; Boehmer, R. M., Die Kleinfunde von Boğazköy (Berlin, 1972), 214Google Scholar (no. 2178), pl. 82; Redford (n. 2), 120; Cline, E. H., Sailing the Wine-Dark Sea: International Trade and the Late Bronze Age Aegean (Oxford, 1994), cat. no. 680Google Scholar, with full references; Mellink, M. J., ‘New perspectives and initiatives in the Hyksos period’, Ägypten und Levante, 5 (1995), 85–9Google Scholar; Lilyquist, C., Egyptian Stone Vases: Khian through Tuthmosis IV (New York, 1995), 22, 46, figs. 12, 123Google Scholar; P. P. Betancourt, ‘Relations between the Aegean and the Hyksos at the end of the middle bronze age’, in Oren 1997, 429; Bietak 1997, 114.

¹⁸ Persson, A. W., New Tombs at Dendra near Medea (Lund, 1942), 178–96Google Scholar.

¹⁹ Stubbings, F. H., ‘The rise of Mycenaean civilisation’, in CAH ii/I. 633–7Google Scholar.

²⁰ Bernal (n. 4), 320–408, with earlier bibliography.

²¹ Bietak 1992, 26–8.

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²³ Published in Davies and Schofield 1995.

²⁴ Published in Ägypten und Levante, 5 (1995Google Scholar).

²⁵ Published in Laffineur and Niemeier 1995.

²⁶ Published in Ägypten und Levante, 6 (1996Google Scholar).

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³² e.g. Shaw, M. C., ‘Bull and maze: a Minoan fresco from Egypt’, AJA 98 (1994), 331Google Scholar (abstract only); ead., ‘A bull leaping scene in a fresco from Mycenae: a new reconstruction’, AJA 99 (1995), 343Google Scholar (abstract only); cf. now ead., ‘The bull-leaping fresco from below the Ramp House at Mycenae: a study in iconography and artistic transmission’, BSA 91 (1996), 167–90Google Scholar.

³³ Bietak 1996.

³⁴ Ibid. 55–89.

³⁵ Ibid. 76.

³⁶ Maimonides, M., The Guide for the Perplexed, translated by Friedländer, M. (New York, 1956), 2, 5Google Scholar.

³⁷ Bietak 1992, 26–8.

³⁸ Ibid.

³⁹ Anon., ‘Digging diary 1993–1994’, Egyptian Archaeology, 5 (1994), 10Google Scholar.

⁴⁰ Bietak 1995, 23, 26; cf. now id. 1996, fig. 55.

⁴¹ e.g. Bietak 1992, 26–8.

⁴² Cf. Hankey, V, ‘Egypt, the Aegean and the Levant’, Egyptian Archaeology, 3 (1993), 27–9Google Scholar; ead., ‘A Theban “battle axe”,’ Minerva, 4/3 (1993), 13–14Google Scholar; Negbi (n. 29), 73–112; Shaw 1994 (n. 32), 331; Marinatos, N., ‘On the rhetoric of Egyptian and Minoan art’, in Holliday, P. J. (ed.), Narrative and Event in Ancient Art (Cambridge, 1993), 74–87Google Scholar; ead., ‘The ‘export’ significance of Minoan bull hunting and bull leaping scenes’, Ägypten und Levante, 4 (1994), 89–93Google Scholar; ead., ‘Formalism and gender roles: a comparison of Minoan and Egyptian art’, in Laffineur and Niemeier 1995, 577–85; ead., ‘Divine kingship in Minoan Crete’, in Rehak, P. (ed), The Role of the Ruler in the Prehistoric Aegean (Liège, 1995), 37–48Google Scholar; Warren (n. 3), 4–5; E. H. Cline, ‘Tinker, tailor, soldier, sailor: Minoans and, Mycenaeans abroad’, in Laffneur and Niemeier 1995, 265–83.

⁴³ Cf. Bietak 1992, 26–8; id. 1995, 23–6; Hankey, Egyptian Archaeology (n. 42), 29; ead., Minerva (n. 42), 13–14; Negbi (n. 29), 80–1, 87–8; Cline (n. 42), 265–70; Warren (n. 3), 4–5; and various articles by Marinatos (n. 42).

⁴⁴ Bietak, M., Dorner, J., Hein, I., and Jánosi, P., ‘Neue Grabungsergebnisse aus Tell el-Dab^ca und ^cEzbet Helmi im östlichen Nildelta 1989–1991’, Ägypten und Levante, 4 (1994), 44–5Google Scholar; cf. also Anonymous, ‘Digging diary 1992–1993’, Egyptian Archaeology, 3 (1993), 9Google Scholar; Bietak 1995, 20–3.

⁴⁵ Bietak and Marinatos 1995, 49.

⁴⁶ Ibid. 62.

⁴⁷ Bietak 1996, 68.

⁴⁸ Ibid. Cf. now also id. 1997, 117.

⁴⁹ Bietak 1996, 72.

⁵⁰ Ibid. 73–4, fig. 57, pl. 33 a–b.

⁵¹ Ibid. 73, colour pls. 3 a–b, 4, 5, 6 a–b.

⁵² Ibid. 74.

⁵³ Ibid. 73; Cline (n. 17), 32, 34; id. (n. 42), 268–9.

⁵⁴ Bietak 1996, 75, colour pl. 6 c.

⁵⁵ Ibid. 75, colour pl. 6 d; cf. Marinatos, N., ‘The “African” of Thera reconsidered’, OpAth 17 (1988), 137–41Google Scholar.

⁵⁶ Bietak 1996, 75, colour pls. 7 a–d, 8 a–b; cf. previously Bietak et al. (n. 40), 49–51, pls. 17 a, 19 a; Bietak in Bietak et al. 1994, 195 (no. 219); Marinatos in Bietak et al. 1994, 202 (no. 126), 203 (no. 227), 205 (no. 230), with colour plate.

⁵⁷ Bietak 1996, 74–5, fig. 57.

⁵⁸ Ibid. 75.

⁵⁹ Anon. (n. 39), 10.

⁶⁰ Bietak 1996, fig. 55.

⁶¹ Bietak 1995, 23, 26; cf. also Bietak and Marinatos 1995, 49; Warren (n. 3), 4; Jánosi, P., ‘Die stratigraphische Position und Verteilung der minoischen Wandfragmente in den Grabungsplätzen H/I und H/IV von Tell el-Dab^ca’, Ägypten und Levante, 5 (1995), 63–71Google Scholar.

⁶² Bietak 1996, 70.

⁶³ Ibid.

⁶⁴ Ibid. 72.

⁶⁵ Ibid. 75.

⁶⁶ Bietak and Marinatos 1995, 49.

⁶⁷ Bietak 1996, 76.

⁶⁸ Ibid., fig. 55.

⁶⁹ Bietak and Marinatos 1995, 49.

⁷⁰ Ibid.

⁷¹ Ibid.

⁷² Bietak 1996, 75. S. W. Manning, ‘From process to people: longue durée to history’, in Cline and Harris-Cline (n. 28), 318–19, believes that the best Aegean comparisons for the ivy decoration are from the LM I B period onwards, rather than the LM I A period, as per Bietak.

⁷³ Bietak 1996, 72.

⁷⁴ But cf. Bietak in Bietak et at. 1994, 52, fig. 39.

⁷⁵ Bietak 1996, 76.

⁷⁶ Bietak 1996.

⁷⁷ Cline (n. 17), 34; id. (n. 42), 269.

⁷⁸ Bietak 1996, 21–36.

⁷⁹ Walberg, G., ‘A gold pendant from Tell el-Dab^ca’, Ägypten und Levante, 2 (1991), 111–12Google Scholar; ead., ‘The finds at Tell el-Dab^ca and Middle Minoan chronology’, Ägypten und Levante, 2 (1991), 115–18Google Scholar (this article is also reproduced unchanged and with the same title in Ägypten und Levante, 3 (1992), 157–9Google Scholar); Warren (n. 3). 3; Bietak 1995, 19–20, pl. 14 1; id. 1997, 104.

⁸⁰ Walberg, ‘Middle Minoan chronology’ (n. 79), 117; Bietak, M., ‘Eine Palastanlage aus der Zeit des späten Mittleren Reiches und andere Forschungsergebnisse aus dem östlichen Nildelta (Tell el-Dab^ca 1979–1984)’, Anzfiger der Philosophisch historischen Klasse der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 121 (1984), 330Google Scholar, fig. 7; id. 1995, 19; id. 1996, 29. id. 1997, 104.

⁸¹ MacGillivray, J. A., ‘A Minoan cup at Tell el-Dab^ca’, Ägypten und Levante, 5 (1995), 81–84Google Scholar; Aruz, J., ‘Imagery and interconnections’, Ägypten und Levante, 5 (1995), 33–48Google Scholar.

⁸² MacGillivray (n. 81), 81–4.

⁸³ Cf. now Bietak 1996, 29, colour pl. I a.

⁸⁴ Walberg, ‘Middle Minoan chronology’ (n. 79), 115–18.

⁸⁵ MacGillivray (n. 81), 81–12.

⁸⁶ Aruz (n. 81), 44–6.

⁸⁷ Cf. now Bietak 1996, 29, colour pl. I b and cover photograph.

⁸⁸ Walberg, ‘A gold pendant…’ (n. 79), 111–12.

⁸⁹ Aruz (n. 81), 46.

⁹⁰ e.g. P. Rehak, pers. comm., 15 January 1997; see now comments by S. P. Morris, ‘Daidalos and Kothar: the future of their relationship’, in Cline and Harris-Cline (n. 28), 282–4.

⁹¹ Bietak 1996, 29.

⁹² Bietak 1997, 104 and n. 35 (although Aruz is misspelt).

⁹³ Bietak 1996, 26, 29, fig. 22. 8, pl. 11 a; previously id., ‘Der Friedhof in einem Palastgarten aus der Zeit des späten Mittleren Reiches und andere forschungsergebnisse aus dem östlichen Nildelta (Tell el-Dab^ca 1984–1987)’, Ägypten und Levante, 2 (1991), 67, fig. 15, pls. 22 c, 23 b.

⁹⁴ Bietak 1995, 20, pl. 14. 2.

⁹⁵ Bietak 1996, 82; cf. Schwab in Bietak et al. 1994, 256 (no. 347). Bietak 1997, 117 states: ‘In H/III, bags of arrowheads, most likely of Late Helladic typology of bronze or copper were found lying beside a large palace wall’.

⁹⁶ Bietak 1996, 70.

⁹⁷ Ibid. 70, 72; cf. also Hein in Bietak et al. 1994, 261 (no. 358); Barber, R-L. N., The Cyclades in the Bronze Age (London, 1987), 153, fig. 111Google Scholar.

⁹⁸ Bietak 1996, 72; id. 1997, 117.

⁹⁹ Ibid. 87 n. 104.

¹⁰⁰ Bietak 1992, 26–8.

¹⁰¹ Bietak et al. (n. 44), 44–5; Bietak 1995, 20–3; Bietak and Marinatos 1995, 49, 62.

¹⁰² Bietak 1996, 76.

¹⁰³ Ibid.

¹⁰⁴ Cf. Bietak 1992, 28; id. 1995, 26; Bietak et al. (n. 44), 58; Bietak and Marinatos 1995, 61; Hankey, Egyptian Archaeology (n. 42), 29; ead., Minerva (n. 42), 13–4; Cline (n. 42), 268–9, 277–8; Shaw, M. C., ‘Bull leaping frescoes at Knossos and their influence on the Tell el-Dab_ca murals’, Ägypten und Levante, 5 (1995), 110Google Scholar; also comments by M. H. Wiener in the discussion section Ibid. 131–2.

¹⁰⁵ Bietak 1996, 80. There are certainly a number of later 18th and 19th Dynasty Egyptian Pharaohs who married foreign princesses, primarily to cement diplomatic bonds or a treaty with a foreign power. Cf. Amarna Letters EA 1–5, 17, 19–22, 24–5, 31–2; Schulman, A. R., ‘Diplomatic marriage in the Egyptian New Kingdom’, JMES 38 (1979), 177–93Google Scholar; Moran, W. L., The Amarna Letters (Baltimore, 1992), 1–3, 6–11, 41–84, 101–3Google Scholar; Cline, E. H., ‘Amenhotep III, the Aegean and Anatolia’, in O'Connor, D. B. and Cline, E. H. (eds), Amenhotep III: Perspectives on his Reign (Ann Arbor, MI, 1998), 248Google Scholar; Haider, E, ‘Menschenhandel zwischen dem ägyptischen Hof und der minoisch-mykenischen Welt?’, Ägypten und Levante, 6 (1996), 149–56Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁶ Bietak 1996, 75.

¹⁰⁷ Ibid. 75–6, fig. 60. See now Hiller, S., ‘Zur Rezeption ägyptischer Motive in der Minoischen Freskenkunst’, Ägypten und Levante, 6 (1996), 83–105Google Scholar; now also Rehak, P., ‘Interconnections between the Aegean and the Orient in the second millennium BC’, AJA 101 (1997), 401CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁰⁸ W.-D. Niemeier, ‘New archaeological evidence for a 17th century date of the ‘Minoan eruption' from Palestine (Tel Kabri, Western Galilee)’, in Hardy and Renfrew 1990, 120–6; id., ‘Minoan artisans travelling overseas’, in R. Laffineur and L. Basch (eds), Thalassa: L'Égée préhistorique et la mer (Liège, 1991), 189–210; id., ‘Tel Kabri: Aegean fresco paintings in a Canaanite palace’, in S. Gitin (ed.), Recent Excavations in Israel: A View to the West (Dubuque, Iowa, 1995), 1–15; Cline (n. 42); Bietak 1996, 78–9; W.-D. and B. Niemeier, ‘Minoan frescoes in the Eastern Mediterranean’, in Cline and Harris-Cline (n. 28), 69–98.

¹⁰⁹ Knapp, in Cline and Harris-Cline (n. 28), 206, pleads for the abandonment of the term ‘Minoan’ in connection with these paintings at Avaris.

¹¹⁰ Bietak and Marinatos 1995, 60.

¹¹¹ Shaw (n. 104), 94.

¹¹² Ibid. 110.

¹¹³ See now Rehak (n. 107), 401.

¹¹⁴ Cf. Kantor, H. J., The Aegean and the Orient in the Second Millennium BC (Bloomington, IN, 1947), 29–30, 78Google Scholar; Shaw, M. C., ‘Ceiling patterns from the tomb of Hepzefa’, AJA 74 (1970), 28CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Vermeule, E. T., ‘Mycenaean drawing, Amarna, and Egyptian ostraka’, in Simpson, W. K. and Davis, W. M. (eds), Studies in Ancient Egypt, the Aegean, and the Sudan (Boston, 1981), 194–5, 197–8Google Scholar; Barber, E.J. W., Prehistoric Textiles: The Development of Cloth in the Neolithic and Bronze Ages (Princeton, 1991), 311–83Google Scholar; Nishimoto, S., ‘The ceiling paintings of the harem rooms at the palace of Malqata’, GM 127 (1992), 69–80Google Scholar; Cline (n. 42), 270.

¹¹⁵ Bietak and Marinatos 1995, 57, 60.

¹¹⁶ Bietak 1996, 75; cf. also id. 1995, 23–4, 26; Warren (n. 3), 4; and the detailed discussion by L. Morgan, ‘Minoan painting and Egypt: the case of Tell el-Dab^ca’, in Davies and Schofield 1995, 29–53.

¹¹⁷ Bietak 1996, 76.

¹¹⁸ Shaw (n. 104), 112.

¹¹⁹ Cf. Niemeier 1991 (n. 108); Cline (n. 42), 265–87.

¹²⁰ Cf. Cline, E. H., ‘“My brother, my son'”: rulership and trade between the LBA Aegean, Egypt and the Near East’, in Rehak, P. (ed.), The Role of the Ruler in the Prehistoric Aegean (Liège, 1995), 143–50Google Scholar.

¹²¹ Bietak 1996, 79–80. id. 1997, 124.

¹²² Cf. Bietak 1996, 36, 48 9, 55; id. 1997. 98, 113; id., ‘Canaanites in the eastern Nile delta’, in A. S. Rainey (ed.), Egypt, Israel, Sinai: Archaeological and Historical Relationships in the Biblical Period (Tel Aviv, 1987), 52; Bernal (n. 4), 321, 336–52; Redford (n. 2), 100–1; Redmount, C. A., ‘Pots and peoples in the Egyptian Delta: Tell el-Maskhuta and the Hyksos’, JMA 8/2 (1995), 64–5, 82–3CrossRefGoogle Scholar; E. D. Oren, ‘Introduction and Overview: Structure and Goals’ in Oren 1997, xxi–xxii; O'Connor (n. 3), 63–4 n. 8; Holladay (n. 14). 198.

¹²³ Cf. Collon, D., ‘Bull-leaping in Syria’, Ägypten und Levante, 4 (1994), 81–5Google Scholar, pls. 1–3, with further bibliography; Aruz (n. 81), 36–8; ead. (n. 31), passim.

¹²⁴ Bietak 1996, 26, 29, 41, fig. 25, pl. 12 c–d; id., ‘Zur Herkunft des Seth von Avaris’, Ägypten und Levante, 1 (1990), 15, fig. 5; cf. also Bietak et al. (n. 44), 57, fig. 19.

¹²⁵ Porada, E., ‘The cylinder seal from Tell el-Dab^ca’, AJA 88 (1984), 487CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹²⁶ Shaw (n. 104), 104; see now ead. 1996 (n. 32).

¹²⁷ For a full compilation of such scenes in the Bronze Age Aegean, see Shaw (n. 104), 113–9 and J. G. Younger, ‘Bronze age representations of Aegean bull-games, III’, in Laffineur and Niemeier 1995, 507–45; cf. previously Younger, J. G., ‘Bronze age representations of Aegean bull-leaping’, AJA 80 (1976), 125–37CrossRefGoogle Scholar; id., ‘A new look at Aegean bull-leaping’, Muse, 17 (1983), 72–80; Marinatos, N., ‘The bull as an adversary: some observations on bull-hunting and bull-leaping’, Ariadne, 5 (1989), 23–32Google Scholar; Negbi (n. 29), 80; Shaw 1995 (n. 32), 343; P. Rehak, ‘The use and destruction of Minoan stone bull's head rhyta’, in Laffineur and Niemeier 1995, 449–50; B. P. Hallager and E. Hallager, ‘The Knossian bull–political propaganda in neo-palatial Crete?’, in Laffineur and Niemeier 1995, 547–56; also Morgan (n. 116), 40–4. Cf. now also Shaw 1996 (n. 32).

¹²⁸ Cf. Bietak 1996, 48; id. 1997, 98; id., ‘Die Chronologie Ägyptens und der Beginn der mittleren Bronzezeitkultur’, Ägyptm und Levante, 3 (1992), 29; also Säve-Söderbergh, T., ‘The Hyksos rule in Egypt’, JEA 37 (1951), 55–71Google Scholar; Van Seters, J., The Hyksos: A New Investigation (New Haven, 1966Google Scholar), passim;, Hayes (n. 3), 3–4; Bernal (n. 4), 352–4; Redmount (n. 122), 64, 82; but cf. O'Connor (n. 3), 62–3.

¹²⁹ Mellink (n. 17); Oren (n. 122) xxii; cf. previously Kantor (n. 114), 74, and even earlier scholars such as Meyer, E.. Geschichte des Altertums, v/2.1, 2nd edn (Stuttgart, 1928), 41–58Google Scholar.

¹³⁰ Cf. Cline (n. 17), cat. nos. 8, gg, 105, 122, 126, 135, 140, 148, 152, 680, and 1100–2, with full references.

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¹³⁴ Cf. Shaw (n. 104), 92 n. 3, 95–6, 112–13.

¹³⁵ Cf. Galán, J. M., ‘Bullfight scenes in ancient Egyptian tombs’, JEA 80 (1994), 81–96Google Scholar, with further bibliography; also Kempen, Y., Krieger, Boten und Athleten, Untersuchungen zum Lanlauf in der Griechischen Antike (Sankt Augustin, 1992Google Scholar), passim.

¹³⁶ Morgan (n. 116), 40.

¹³⁷ Cf. Shaw (n. 104), 95–6.

¹³⁸ Bietak 1996, 76.

¹³⁹ Bietak and Marinatos 1995, 62.

¹⁴⁰ Cline (n. 17), passim; id., ‘Egyptian and Near Eastern imports at Late Bronze Age Mycenae’, in Davies and Schofield 1995, 91–115 with references.

¹⁴¹ Cf. most recently Cline (n. 17), 31; Warren and Hankey (n. 133), 138–46, figs. 6–7; P. M. Warren, ‘Summary of evidence for the absolute chronology of the early part of the Aegean late bronze age derived from historical Egyptian sources’, in Hardy and Renfrew 1990, 25; id. (n. 3), 5–10, 13; Hankey 1995 (n. 133), 18–20; Manning 1995 (n. 132), 203–4, 206, 221, 224–5; idem ‘Dating the Aegean Bronze Age: without, with, and beyond, radiocarbon’, Acta Arckaeologica, 67 (1996), 15–37; previously Hankey and Warren (n. 133), 145–7; Kemp and Merrillees (n. 133), 226–45; Vincentelli, I. and Tiradritti, F., ‘La presenza egea in Egitto’, in Marazzi, M., Tusa, S., and Vagnetti, L. (eds), Traffici micenei nel Mediterraneo: Problemi storici e documentazione archeologica (Taranto, 1986), 327–34Google Scholar; Hankey 1987 (n. 133), 44–7; Manning 1988 (n. 132), 28–9, 33, 60–1.

¹⁴² Manning 1996 (n. 141); Betancourt (n. 17), 429.

¹⁴³ Bietak 1996, 80; id. 1997, 124.

¹⁴⁴ Cf. Kantor (n. 114), 63–6, 71–2, 74; Smith, W. Stevenson, The Art and Architecture of Ancient Egypt (London, 1981), 219–22Google Scholar, figs. 215–16; Warren (n. 3), 5, with additional references; Aruz (n. 81), 42–3.

¹⁴⁵ Note that the division between the Egyptian 17th and 18th Dynasties is artificial to some extent, since the same family is involved. Queen Ahhotep's titles included ‘Mistress of the shores of Hau-nebut’, which Bietak (1996, 80, and 1997, 124) finds ‘puzzling’ and intriguing, since ‘Hau-nebut’ is a geographical term which was once thought to be a reference to the Aegean (cf. e.g. Meyer (n. 129), 54–7). However, Vercoutter, J., ‘Les Haounebut’, BIFAO 46 (1947), 125–58Google Scholar and Vandersleyan, C., Les Guerres d'Amosis (Brussels, 1971), 139–74Google Scholar (cf. also id., ‘OUADJ-OUR ne signifie pas “mer”: qu'on se le dise!’, GM 103 (1988), 78–80; Iversen, E., ‘Some remarks on the h3w-nbw.t’ ZÄS 114 (1987), 54–9Google Scholar; Nibbi, A., ‘Some further remarks on the Haunebut’, ZÄS 116 (1989), 153–60Google Scholar) have long since demonstrated to the satisfaction of most scholars that while the term was indeed apparently used as a reference to ‘Greeks’ in the Late Period, it was more likely a reference to areas in Syria–Palestine during the New Kingdom Period. Bietak now suggests that the identification should be ‘reconsidered seriously’; cf. also recently Hankey, Minerva (n. 42), 13–14; Jánosi, P., ‘The Queens Ahhotep I and II and Egypt's Foreign Relations’, Journal of the Ancient Chronology Forum, 5 (1991/1992), 99–105Google Scholar; Bernal (n. 4), 416–17.

¹⁴⁶ Cf. Laffineur, R., ‘L'incrustation à l'epoque mycénienne’, L'Antiquité classique, 43 (1974), 5–37CrossRefGoogle Scholar; id., ‘Material and craftsmanship in the Mycenaean shaft graves: imports vs. local productions’, Minos, 25–6 (1990–1), 269–76; Sakellariou, A. Xenaki and Chatziliou, C., 'Peinture en Métal' a L'époque mycénienne: incrustation damasquinage niellure (Athens, 1989Google Scholar), passim.

¹⁴⁷ Original publication in Annales du Service des Antiquités, 7 (1906), 115–20Google Scholar; also Frankfort, H. J., The Art and Architecture of the Ancient Orient (London, 1963), 138–9Google Scholar; Van Seters (n. 128), 71–2; Bernal (n. 4), 354.

¹⁴⁸ Branigan, K., ‘Byblite daggers in Cyprus and Crete’, AJA 70 (1966), 123–6CrossRefGoogle Scholar; id., ‘Further light on prehistoric relations between Crete and Syria’, AJA 71 (1967), 117–21; id., ‘The early bronze age daggers of Crete’, BSA 62 (1967), 211–40; cf. also Bietak (n. 122), 52 and id. 1997, 98 on the possible Byblite origins of the Hyksos residents of Avaris.

¹⁴⁹ Betancourt 1987 (n. 132), 45–9; Manning 1988 (n. 132), 17–82; also the discussion section in Ägypten und Levante, 5 (1995), 121–6Google Scholar.

¹⁵⁰ Cf. Cline (n. 17), 7; Negbi (n. 29), 81–3; Manning 1995 (n. 132), 217.

¹⁵¹ Cf. now M. Bietak, ‘Excursus: the chronology of MB II and Middle Kingdom Egypt’, in Oren 1997, 125–8 previously id., ‘Problems of Middle Bronze Age chronology: new evidence from Egypt’, AJA 88 (1984), 471–85; id., ‘The Middle Bronze Age of the Levant – a new approach to relative and absolute chronology’, in P. Åstrom (ed), High, Middle or Low? (Acts of an International Colloquium on Absolute Chronology Held at the University of Gothenburg 20th–22nd August igSy), Pt. 3 (Göteborg, 1989), 78–120; id., ‘Egypt and Canaan during the middle bronze age’, BASOR 281 (1991), 27–72; id., ‘Die Chronologie Agyptens’ (n. 128), 29–37; Dever, W. G., ‘Relations between Syria, Palestine and Egypt in the “Hyksos period”,’ in Tubb, J. N. (ed.), Palestine in the Bronze and Iron Ages: Papers in Honour of Olga Tufnell (London, 1985), 69–87Google Scholar; id., ‘Tell el-Dab^ca and Levantine Middle Bronze Age chronology: a rejoinder to Manfred Bietak’, BASOR 281 (1991), 73–9Google Scholar; id., ‘The chronology of Syria-Palestine in the second millennium BC’, Ägypten und Levante, 3 (1992), 39–51; id., ‘The chronology of Syria-Palestine in the second millennium BCE: a review of current issues’, BASOR 288 (1992), 1–25; id., ‘Settlement patterns and chronology of Palestine in the middle bronze age’, in Oren 1997, 285–301; Weinstein, J. M., ‘The chronology of Palestine in the early second millennium BC’, BASOR 288 (1992), 27–46Google Scholar; id. (n. 3), 84–90. Holladay (n. 14), 210 n. 5, has stated most recently that ‘…the absolute dates maintained by Bietak … do not, as yet, command universal assent … and, indeed appear unworkable—as presently formulated—in terms of Western Asiatic relative chronologies, particularly those of Syria-Palestine.’

¹⁵² Cf. Cline (n. 17), 5.

¹⁵³ Bietak 1996, 76.

¹⁵⁴ Cf. Warren and Hankey (n. 133), 215.

¹⁵⁵ Bietak 1996, 76.

¹⁵⁶ Cf. Betancourt 1987 (n. 132); Manning 1988 (n. 132); id. 1995 (n. 132), 200–16.

¹⁵⁷ Bietak 1996, 76.

¹⁵⁸ Ibid. 78, pl. 34 a–b; id. 1997, 124–5.

¹⁵⁹ Cf. Foster and Ritner (n. 3); Artzy, M., ‘Conical cups and pumice, Aegean cult at Tel Nami, Israel’, in Laffineur, R. and Basch, L. (eds), Thalassa: L'Égée préhistorique et la mer (Liège, 1991), 203–6Google Scholar; P. M. Warren and H. Puchelt, ‘Stratified pumice from bronze age Knossos’, in Hardy and Renfrew 1990, 71–81; J. S. Soles and C. Davaras, ‘Theran ash in Minoan Crete: new excavations on Mochlos’, in Hardy and Renfrew 1990, 89–95; P. P. Betancourt, P. Goldberg, R. Hope Simpson, and C. J. Vitaliano, ‘Excavations at Pseira: the evidence for the Theran eruption’, in Hardy and Renfrew 1990, 96–9; T. Marketou, ‘Santorini tephra from Rhodes and Kos: some chronological remarks based on the stratigraphy’, in Hardy and Renfrew 1990, 100–13; D. G. Sullivan, ‘Minoan tephra in lake sediments in western Turkey: dating the eruption and assessing the atmospheric dispersal of the ash’, in Hardy and Renfrew 1990, 114–19; V. Francaviglia, ‘Sea-borne pumice deposits of archaeological interest on Aegean and Eastern Mediterranean beaches’, in Hardy and Renfrew 1990, 127–34; Stanley, D. J. and Sheng, H., ‘Volcanic shards from Santorini (upper Minoan ash) in the Nile Delta, Egypt’, Nature, 320 (1986), 733–5CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁶⁰ Cf. Vandersleyen, C., ‘Une tempête sous le règne d'Amosis’, Revue d'Égyptologie, 19 (1967), 123–59Google Scholar; id., ‘Deux nouveaux fragments de la stèle d'Amosis relatant une tempête’, Revue d'Égyptologie, 20 (1968), 127–34; Goedicke, H., ‘The end of the Hyksos in Egypt’, in Lesko, L. (ed), Egyptological Studies in Honor of Richard A. Parker (London, 1986), 37–47Google Scholar; E. N. Davis, ‘A storm in Egypt during the reign of Ahmose’, in Hardy and Renfrew 1990, 232–5; Foster and Ritner (n. 3). Redford 1997 (n. 2), 16; Wiener, M.H. and Allen, J. P., ‘Separate lives: the Ahmose Stela and the Theran eruption’, JNES 57 (1998), 1–28Google Scholar.

¹⁶¹ Cf. Foster and Ritner (n. 3), 10.

¹⁶² Cline (n. 17), 5–8.

¹⁶³ Ibid.

¹⁶⁴ M. H. Wiener, comment during discussion session, in Laffineur and Niemeier 1995, 286; cf. also id., comments in discussion section, Ägypten und Levante, 5 (1995), 128–9.

¹⁶⁵ G. Kopcke, comment during discussion session, in Laffineur and Niemeier 1995, 285.

¹⁶⁶ Morgan (n. 116), 29–53; Redmount (n. 122), 61–89; A. B. Knapp, ‘Mediterranean Bronze Age trade: distance, power and place’, in Cline and Harris-Cline (n. 28), 193–207.

¹⁶⁷ Cline (n. 17); id. (n. 42); id. (n. 120).

¹⁶⁸ Karageorghis, V., ‘Relations between Cyprus and Egypt—Second Intermediate Period and Xlllth Dynasty’, Ägypten und Levante, 5 (1995), 73–9Google Scholar; cf. Bietak 1996, 35, 59, 63, 70, fig. 49, pl. 26 a–c.

¹⁶⁹ Bietak 1996, 59.

¹⁷⁰ Ibid. 63, fig. 48 b; cf. also Clerc, G., ‘Un fragment de vase au nom d'Ahmosis (?) à Palaepaphos-Teratsoudhia’, in Karageorghis, V. (ed.), Tombs at Palaepaphos 1. Temtsoudhia, 2. Eliomylia (Nicosia, 1990), 95–103Google Scholar; Jacobsson, I., Aegyptiaca from Late Bronze Age Cyprus (Jonsered, 1994Google Scholar), passim; L. C. Maguire, ‘Tell el-Dab^ca: the Cypriot connection’, in Davies and Schofield 1995, 54–65.

¹⁷¹ Arnold et al. (n. 131), 13–32.

¹⁷² Bietak 1996, 79.

¹⁷³ Ibid. 74, 79.

¹⁷⁴ Ibid. 80–1; cf. previously id. 1992, 26–8; id. 1995, 26.

¹⁷⁵ Maimonides (n. 36), 2, 5.

¹⁷⁶ Bietak 1996, 76.

¹⁷⁷ See e.g. the discussion section in Ägypten und Levante, 5 (1995), 126–32Google Scholar.

¹⁷⁸ Bietak is clearly aware of the need for full publication of all relevant data; in Bietak 1997, 127 he states: ‘Some of the criticism is based on the claim that the results of Tell el Dab^cxsa have not yet been fully published in order to control the results presented by the excavator. This is true, but complicated excavations need some time for their evaluation and subsequent publication … the evaluation of the material is not in the hands of a single individual, but of an international group of at least 20 scholars based in different countries. The material is not secret, it is accessible. We always have an open door for interested colleagues.’

¹⁷⁹ With apologies to Lord Byron, Don Juan (1818–1824), canto I, st. 216.