Brushtail possums, Trichosurus vulpecula, are New Zealand's most serious vertebrate pest, facilitating the spread of bovine tuberculosis to livestock, and causing severe damage to native flora and fauna. Possum control has become a national research priority, involving the use of large numbers of captive possums. Successful adaptation of these animals to captivity is important for the welfare of the possums and for the validity of experimental results. The objective of this study was to determine, by behavioural means, the time individually caged possums required for adaptation to captivity. We used a simple behavioural measure - a possum's daily response to a caregiver at feeding (a feeding test) - to assess changes in the behaviour of possums after arrival in captivity. We also recorded changes in possum body weight throughout this period. Initially most possums ‘avoided’ the caregiver, but within 7 days more than 80 per cent of animals no longer avoided. ‘In den’ and ‘approach’ behaviour rapidly increased for the first 14 days in captivity, after which den use became less common as more possums ‘approached’ the caregiver. By day 29 of captivity, more than 80 per cent of the possums ‘approached’ the caregiver. The possums’ body weight did not change significantly during the first 14 days in captivity, but had increased significantly by day 28, and continued to increase for at least 6 weeks after capture. These data suggest that most possums adapt to captivity within 4 weeks. For the welfare of possums and the reliability of experimental results, we recommend that possums are not used in experiments until at least 4 weeks after capture.

Farmed deer, of which the predominant species is the red deer (Cervus elaphus), are increasingly transported to abattoirs for slaughter rather than being shot at pasture. In order to satisfy meat hygiene and marketing requirements, the welfare of deer is often reduced because all farmed animals are stressed by commercial transportation. Several recent experimental studies (reviewed here) have found the magnitude of behavioural and physiological responses of deer to many aspects of handling and transport to be similar to those measured in other farm species, particularly ruminants. Thus, their welfare appears not to be unduly compromised despite their comparatively recent domestication. Deer are, however, particularly flighty and require specialized handling facilities and equipment, the key features of which are summarized.

Legislation covering transport of deer is already operative in many countries with the aim of safeguarding deer welfare. However, the responses of deer to commercial transportation have not yet been measured scientifically. This primary information is needed before a full assessment of the effects of transport on the welfare of deer can be made. Thermal conditions during transit are of importance for deer welfare and these have not been measured, either under experimental conditions or during commercial journeys.

The social environment is very important for the welfare of animals in loose housing dairy production systems. This article reviews recent literature on the effect of animal density (AD) and regrouping (RG'j on the welfare of cattle and describes the development of feasible indicators for the social environment. Special emphasis is given to the methodological problems that arise when AD and RG are used as welfare indicators in a welfare assessment at the herd level. Various factors affecting estimates of AD were considered, including the size of the animals, correction for very high AD values, pen shape and how best to aggregate the results at herd level and over time. The examination of RG is centred around the effect of early social experience of the animals, the stability of social relationships, and the effect of pen changes.

A range of parameters is suggested for the evaluation of AD and RG as possible welfare indicators. These are based on observational data from 10 Danish dairy herds and related to clinical records from the herd farms. It is concluded that mean AD is not feasible as a welfare indicator at the herd level but the 25th percentile of AD corrected for the liveweight of the animals should be used instead. The two most promising parameters for evaluation of RG are the frequency of combined pen and group changes for a sample of the herd, and the probability of a certain duration of inter-animal relationships. Results from clinical observations correlated with neither AD nor RG.

The barren housing conditions of farmed blue foxes (Alopex lagopus) provide few stimuli to motivate exploration and interaction with the physical environment. In the present study, wooden blocks (30x7 cm [lxdia]) were employed to clarify how such inanimate objects might serve to enrich the barren wire-mesh cages. Two separate experiments were carried out. In experiment 1, behavioural reactions of eight male blue foxes to wooden blocks were videotaped between January and May. In experiment 2, 16 male blue foxes were housed singly in cages with wooden blocks and 16 without between January and June. Pencil, confrontation, feeding and open field tests were carried out. Furthermore, 50 female blue foxes were kept singly in cages with wooden blocks and 49 without from January to July. Both groups were bred and the whelping result was recorded. In-cage behavioural tests were performed three times. Results showed that interactions with the wooden blocks were frequent, averaging 77 interactions fox’1 day1. Interactions with blocks decreased slightly with time. Blocks were mainly used for carrying, chewing, poking and sniffing. In the confrontation test, male foxes housed without blocks were more passive than those with blocks. No differences were found between the groups in the pencil, feeding or open field tests. Whelping success tended to be better for vixens housed with than without blocks. It can be concluded that wooden blocks have enrichment value by providing more choices for foxes in a barren cage and stimulating more variable behaviour.

Each of two 20-sow groups consisted of gilts ie virgin sows (one third) and sows (parity 2-5, ie sows which had given birth 2-5 times). One group was housed indoors with a straw-covered lying area and dunging area. Another group was housed outdoors with a covered straw lying area and two rooting fields. Behavioural observations were made on both groups: indoor sows were observed for 4h day−1, for 10 days (40h); outdoor sows were observed for 6h day−1, for 21 days (126h). Social interactions were classified as threat, bite, knock and push. Continuous data on the type of interaction and the winner or loser were recorded. Four measures of social status, based on social behaviour, were calculated: i) displacement index; ii) level of interaction; iii) success in interactions; and iv) matrix dominance. Spearman rank correlation coefficients between different ranked measures of social status within each group (outdoor or indoor) were significant for displacement index, success in interaction and matrix dominance. The level of interaction did not correlate with other measures (except for matrix dominance in the indoor group). Measures of displacement, success in interaction and matrix dominance provide highly consistent and correlated measures of social status.

Guidelines for the housing of dairy cows do not address the provision of supplementary lighting in passageways, other than for inspection of the animals. Two experiments were conducted to investigate whether lighting passageways to various intensities influenced the locomotion of dairy cows. The first experiment compared the locomotion of dairy cows in a dark or lighted passageway as they walked back to their accommodation from milking. When the passageway was dark, the cows took shorter but more rapid steps - which probably increased their stability. In the second experiment, cows walked down a cubicle passageway to receive a food reward, with the light intensity in the building varying from 0-250 lux. Step length and stepping rate were recorded, as well as the angles of the cows’ leg joints (which were measured from video recordings). Once again, the cows increased their stepping rate in the dark, and this resulted in an increased walking rate, perhaps because they wished to return more rapidly to other members of their group and found the darkness aversive. In addition, the arcs of travel of the metacarpophalangeal joint and of the fore- and hindfeet angles to the floor were reduced in the dark, probably increasing the cows’ stability, and were greatest at 119 lux. The slowest walking rate was observed at 39 lux. Hence, the optimum illumination for dairy cow locomotion may lie approximately between 39 and 119 lux, as measured by our technique.

We conclude that during locomotion in dark passageways cows have to modify their walking behaviour significantly, so that the provision of at least a low level of lighting is desirable at night.

In this paper we describe the existence and consequences of subspecific and individual variation in the genetic make-up of house mice. The purpose is to illustrate forms of variation that are often neglected in discussions about animal care and experimental design. Towards this end, different inbred mouse strains as well as genetically selected mouse lines are compared in relation to their ecological origin. Firstly, the behaviour of BALB/c, C57BL/6J and CBA mice is described in relation to different habitats. Furthermore, their aggression is compared, as measured by two paradigms. It appears that some inbred lines (eg BALB/c and C57BL/6J) clearly show behaviour that reflects the functional adaptation to the natural habitats in which their ancestors lived. Other strains (eg CBA) show a lack of such behavioural adaptation and their phenotypes appear to be very unstable over time. Secondly, two fundamentally different characters, both present in populations of wild house mice and under genetic control, are described: on the one hand, active copers are characterized by aggressive behaviour; on the other hand, passive copers are reluctant to attack. The active, aggressive animals (manipulators) are well adapted to an invariant environment like their own territory, whereas the passive, non-aggressive copers (adjustors) are well adapted to a changing environment, eg when roaming. We discuss to what extent these coping styles are present in laboratory strains of mice. The major conclusion with regard to both phenomena is that individual and subspecific variation may have significant implications for experimental design and the welfare of the experimental animals.

The post-release survival of hand-reared tawny owls, Strix aluco, was studied. Hand-rearing did not appear to affect the birds’ instinctive behaviour or post-release survival. The recovery of several pellets confirmed that hunting in this species is an innate process. In terms of animal welfare, hand-reared tawny owls do not appear to be at a disadvantage when compared with wild juveniles, indicating that current rearing and release practices are effective.

Electrocution of an animal is inhumane if it is not rendered instantaneously insensible by the application of sufficient current density within vital centres of the brain. Application of electric current which does not achieve this, is likely to cause severe pain. The humane aspects of electrical lancing have aroused widespread concern and debate.

For an electrically lanced whale of the size of those currently hunted, previous research has indicated that the current densities produced in the heart and brain are unlikely to reliably render the animal insensible or stop its heart. This study supports these findings and demonstrates that the presence of salt water/immersion may further reduce current densities. Evidence for the failure of the electric lance includes the necessity for multiple and prolonged applications of electric current.

Reasons for the failure of the electric lance include non-optimal current injection sites, insufficient current injected, the presence of salt water, and the trauma caused by the explosive harpoon. The efficacy of the electric lance may be falsely exaggerated for reasons associated with blood loss and misdiagnosis of death. All evidence clearly indicates that attempts to stop the heart by electrocution will cause severe pain to an already traumatized animal.

We suggest that the use of the electric lance is clearly inhumane, and are pleased to announce that its use in Japanese whaling operations was reportedly discontinued as from 1997.

The European Union (EU) has often been regarded as a prime mover in the cause of improved animal welfare. There is a great deal of European legislation to support this contention. This article discusses a recent case brought by the UK Government under Article 177 of the Treaty of Rome 1957 which challenges the assumption that EU law always favours animal welfare. We suggest that free trade is the driving force behind EU legislation and that where this conflicts with animal welfare, free trade is usually preferred.

In July 1983, the Members of the European Parliament who took part in the inaugural meeting of the Intergroup on the Welfare and Conservation of Animals requested that, to help them in their considerations, an analysis should be undertaken of major areas of concern for animal welfare in Europe. This task was taken on by the Eurogroup for Animal Welfare, which published the first such analysis in 1984. This review has been revised regularly and the sixth edition was published in July 1999.

The Feline Advisory Bureau has published three new information sheets which offer advice and guidance for those seeking to work with rescued or feral cats, or who wish to start their own boarding cattery. Setting up a Shelter for Rescued Cats, written by Anne Haughie (author of FAB's Cat Rescue Manual) provides a useful and comprehensive overview of the issues covered within her larger manual. It addresses the initial planning and equipment needed to ensure a successful shelter, and gives practical advice on accommodation, management and husbandry routines. The second leaflet, Setting up a Neutering Project for Feral Cats, also by Anne Haughie, details step-by-step how to set up and implement a feral cat neutering project, from its advance planning through to the trapping, handling and re-release of the now neutered ferals. It identifies the veterinarian support that is likely to be needed and stresses the importance of formulating an euthanasia policy prior to trapping. The last leaflet Starting a Boarding Cattery - What You Need to Know answers some of the common questions asked by people considering this option.

On 22 October 1999, at its 54th Annual Conference, the World Zoo Organization (WZO; previously the International Union of Directors of Zoological Gardens) ratified a draft code of ethics.

Live cockerels are an unwanted by-product of the egg production industry. On the day of hatching, chicks are sexed, the females are sent on for rearing as layers and the males are disposed of. The numbers killed are vast and methods of killing and standards of humaneness vary considerably around the world. In 1989 the Humane Slaughter Association, with the cooperation of the industry, carried out a survey of practices at UK hatcheries and was asked subsequently to produce a code of practice on humane disposal.

On 1 January 2000, New Zealand's new animal welfare legislation - the Animal Welfare Act 1999 - came into force. The Act itself, with its accompanying schedules, is 121 pages of, to the non-legal eye, somewhat dense and demanding text. Fortunately, the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry has published a useful accompanying guide (see below for details) which helps to introduce the Act and explain its rationale, scope and layout. The Act, so the guide tells us, ‘is a clear statement to New Zealanders and the rest of the world that animals in New Zealand have a right to expect proper and sufficient care’.