Strategies of introgressing a transgene into a pig nucleus undergoing mass selection for net merit were deterministically evaluated. They consisted of systematically backcrossing hemizygous transgenic sires to females from the selection nucleus, or vice versa, followed by intercrossing of hemizygous individuals, assuming different levels of heritability (h2), polygenic breeding value of the founder animal, inbreeding depression and constraints in availability of resources. The polygenic breeding value of the founder transgenic animal and inbreeding depression were of negligible importance if backcrossing lasted for at least three generations, and there was little advantage in extending backcrossing much further. The best introgression strategy examined was to backcross selection nucleus sires to hemizygous females, but this was a less efficient strategy in terms of testing transgene effects. Testing the survival of homozygous carriers requires approximately five and 100 matings among hemizygous individuals to detect a reduction in viability of 0·5 and 0·1, respectively. Comparing several candidate transgenes in the first generations of backcrossing is feasible, and does not result in substantial delays in improvement of polygenic breeding value in the selected transgene. If resources are limited, the magnitude of the transgene effect (as a proportion of the mean) that compensates for the genetic lag incurred by its introgression is about 0·1 for most economic traits in pigs. To compensate for less selection while backcrossing and for risk in use, transgenes must have an appreciable effect on economic merit to make their introgression worthwhile, even when the additional costs of transgene production are ignored.

Genes from the Chinese Meishan pig have the potential to enhance reproductive performance of European pigs. In order to allow prediction of the impact of Meishan genes in a range of alternative improvement programmes all traits of economic importance must be evaluated and genetic crossbreeding effects estimated. Entire male and female pigs of four genotypes, purebred Meishan (MS) and Large White (LW) pigs and both reciprocal Fl crossbred genotypes (MS ♂ × LW ♀ and LW ♂ × MS ♀), were farrowed in Edinburgh and subsequently performance tested at either Edinburgh or Newcastle. In Edinburgh, animals were penned in groups of four and fed ad libitum between pen mean weights of approximately 30 and 80 kg. At the end of test fat depths at the shoulder, last rib and loin were measured ultrasonically. In Newcastle, animals were penned in groups of six and fed ad libitum between pen mean weights of approximately 30 and 70 kg. Genotypic means and genetic crossbreeding effects (additive and heterosis direct effects and additive maternal effects) were estimated using restricted maximum likelihood.

When compared with the LW, the direct additive effect of genes from the MS produced increased growth rate up to the time of weaning, no change in growth rate between weaning and start of test and greatly reduced growth rate during the performance test. The maternal additive effect of genes from the MS was to reduce growth rate up to the time of weaning, with little effect thereafter. There was substantial direct heterosis for growth rate in all periods measured, but heterosis was less in males than in females during the performance test. The combined effect was such that, within sex, the LW and the two crossbred genotypes were of similar ages when they reached 70 and 80 kg, but MS pigs were 38 to 60 days older. The direct additive effect of MS genes was to increase subcutaneous fat levels and there was little evidence for the effects of maternal genes or direct heterosis on these traits. There was a direct additive effect of MS genes reducing food intake and increasing food conversion ratio and there was direct heterosis for increased food intake. There were significant interactions between genotype and sex. Male and female LW pigs had a similar performance but male MS pigs had slower growth rates on the performance test with lower food intakes, food conversion ratios and subcutaneous fat levels than the females.

The prospect that genes from the Chinese Meishan pig will be used to improve reproductive performance of European pigs requires that the Meishan is evaluated for traits of economic importance and the genetics of any breed effects investigated. Entire male and female pigs of four genotypes; purebred Meishan (MS) and Large White (LW) pigs and both reciprocal Fl crossbred genotypes (MS ♂ × LW ♀and LW ♂ × MS ♀), were fed ad libitum and slaughtered at about 70 kg. After slaughter, carcass weight, dimensions and conformation were recorded and fat depths at the shoulder, mid back and loin were measured on the carcass, together with fat depths and eye muscle dimensions recorded on a section cut at the last rib position. Drip loss, muscle reflectance and pH were measured and subjective assessments of fat firmness, fat separation, muscle marbling and muscle colour were made. Genotypic means and genetic crossbreeding effects (direct additive and heterosis effects and maternal additive effects) were estimated using restricted maximum likelihood procedures. When compared with the LW, MS carcasses had a similar killing-out proportion but were shorter with a poorer conformation. MS carcasses had substantially greater fat depths and reduced eye muscle dimensions in comparison with the LW. Differences between genotypes for fat depths and muscle dimensions were largely controlled by direct additive gene action, there was little evidence of direct heterosis and hence Fl crosses were intermediate between the purebreds. Significant genotype × sex interaction meant that genotypic differences for these traits were much greater in females than in males. Significant direct additive genetic differences between female genotypes were found for fat firmness, fat separation and drip loss, but these effects may in part have been a consequence of subcutaneous fat depth differences between genotypes. The degree of marbling was greater in MS females than in females of the other three genotypes and these genotypic differences did not seem to be associated with subcutaneous fat depth. Muscle from MS males was darker in colour with a lower reflectance than that from LW males. Genotype × sex interaction was such that genotypic differences for meat and fat quality traits differed between sexes.

The effect of including full-fat Colombian rice polishings, at 250 or 500 g/kg dry matter (DM) or defatted Colombian rice polishings (at 500 g/kg DM) on the fermentation of a basal diet of dried grass and medium-quality hay, in the rumen simulation technique (Rusitec), was investigated. With diets which contained 0, 0·25, 0·50 full-fat or 0·50 defatted, proportions of rice polishing, values for pH were depressed (7·22, 7·19, 7·11, 7·06 (s.e.d. 0·05)) and total volatile fatty acid concentrations were increased (52·8, 52·5, 75·5, 754 (s.e.d. 2·1) mmol/l) at the high levels of inclusion of rice polishings. Concentrations of ammonia (130, 140, 228, 209 (s.e, d. 64) mg/l) and total bacterial numbers (2·32, 2·70, 3·55, 442 (s.e.d. 0·82) × 108 per ml) were elevated by rice polishings inclusion. Numbers of cellulolytic bacteria (2·52, 1·74, 1·84, 2·10 (s.e.d. 0·60) × 106 per ml) and protozoa (19·8, 16·2, 15·8, 22·2 (s.e.d. 1·51) × 103 per ml were depressed (the latter significantly P < 0·01) by the inclusion offull-fat, but not by defatted, rice polishings.

Two feeding experiments with housed lambs of the Spanish Manchega breed were carried out over 2 years with the aim of assessing the suitability of field beans in lamb finishing diets. In the 1st year field beans were compared with soya-bean meal as a protein source in a factorial experimental design with the proportion of maize in the diet being 0·15, 0·25 or 0·35. In the second experiment the effect of replacing soya-bean meal and sunflower meal by inclusion of field beans at proportions, 0, 0·1, 0·2, 0·3 and 04 of the diet was studied. All diets were isoenergetic and isoproteic. The composition of the diets had no significant effects on the average daily gain or the food conversion ratio in either experiment. Results from experiment 2 showed that the increasing amount of field beans in the basal diet did not affect protein, fat and water content of a loin sample of meat, or fatty acid composition of kidney fat.

Farrowing site choice was examined in 40 sows. In group 1, the preference of 16 sows was tested for pre-formed lying areas which incorporated the characteristics of previously observed farrowing nests: a hollow (H), a mattress (M), a nest box (B) and a flat control (C). None of the sows farrowed on C which indicated that choice was based on some evaluation of the lying surface. However, there was no significant preference for the three nest features: H6, M6, B 4. In group 2, C was replaced by a straw area (S). Four different amounts of straw were offered: 18, 9, 4·5 and 2·25 kg with four, four, eight, eight sows on trial at each amount respectively. All the sows farrowed on S at the 18, 9 and 4·5 levels; at 2·25 kg, three farrowed on S and five moved the straw to other lying areas on which they farrowed. The results indicated that the location of nest material has an important influence on farrowing site choice because it allows the performance of nesting behaviour. Although performance of the behaviour was not affected by the amount of straw available, 2·25 kg appeared to be inadequate for a satisfactory nest.

During a series of routine experiments to evaluate 16 foods offered to wether sheep, conventional measurements of digestibility were augmented by measurement of fractional outflow rates (FOR) of solids (ks) and liquid (k1) from the rumen and urinary allantoin nitrogen excretion (UAN) as an index of microbial yield. Fixed (1 kg) amounts of ‘dry’ foods were offered to sheep ranging in weight from 42 to 89 kg which permitted a retrospective analysis of plane of nutrition effects on diet digestibility, ks, k1 and UAN. Each diet was simultaneously offered to three sheep (one each of large, medium and small size). Smaller sheep had significantly higher FOR, significantly lower apparent digestibilities of dry matter and significantly higher UAN (g/kg digestible organic matter (DOM)). Higher UAN (g/kg DOM) indicated higher microbial energetic efficiencies with the smaller sheep.

Two experiments were carried out with weaned piglets from 8 to 25 kg live weight in order to determine the dietary amino acid content necessary for maximum growth. Six diets based on wheat, soya-bean meal, soya-bean oil and free amino acids were compared in each experiment. Essential amino acids were in the same relative proportion for all diets: (methionine + cystine)/lysine = 0·60 to 0·65; threonine/lysine = 0·65; tryptophan/lysine = 0·19. The range of amino acid content was 9·53 to 12·52 g lysine per kg in the first experiment and 11·34 to 15·94 g lysine per kg in the second experiment. The number of piglets used per diet was 136 (20 pens) and 106 (16 pens) in respectively the first and the second experiment. The relationship between either dietary lysine content or daily lysine intake and growth rate was quadratic and significant. Dietary lysine content and daily lysine intake which enable maximum growth were calculated according to this model. Dietary lysine contents were 15·5 and 14·9 g/kg for the first 3 weeks (8 to 17 kg) and for the overall post-weaning period (8 to 25 kg) respectively. Daily lysine intakes were 10·6 and 13·3 g/day respectively for the same two periods. Reasons for these values being higher than those currently cited are discussed.

ad libitum water intake patterns in newly weaned pigs were investigated, with particular emphasis on the impact of water quality, the presence or absence of food antibiotics and the use of water soluble probiotic. Pigs were given water containing low (217 mg/l), medium (2350 mg/l) or high (4390 mg/l) levels of total dissolved solids (TDS), either with or without a water additive containing probiotic, and a medicated (experiment 1 and 3) or unmedicated (experiment 2) starter diet for 20 (experiments 1 and 2) or 5 (experiment 3) days immediately post weaning. Water intake, food intake, growth and faecal scores were recorded, and blood was sampled to determine ionic composition. There appeared to be two phases of water consumption: intake in the first 5 days post weaning did not appear to be related to apparent physiological need, whilst later, water consumption increased in parallel with food intake and body-weight gain. In the earlier period, behaviour may have been a primary influence; water intake was not related to faecal scores and water quality had no effect on consumption. In the later phase, intake increased at higher TDS concentrations. Water quality had no effect on performance when pigs were given medicated food; however, pigs receiving unmedicated food exhibited reduced gain (P > 0·05) and food efficiency (P < 0·05), and increased incidence of diarrhoea, when consuming water with elevated mineral levels. The probiotic did not improve performance or decrease scouring (P > 0·05). Blood composition was not affected by treatment (P > 0·05). Although physiological need may be fundamental in establishing water requirements, it appears that other factors such as water quality and the process of weaning influence consumption patterns. These data provide further encouragement for research to define true requirements for water, which by necessity would require identification of all mediating factors.

The experiment examined the effect of breed, diet and sex on pig performance and carcass quality. Eight sires of the Duroc and Large White breeds each produced four experimental litters. Two boar and two female pigs from each litter were reared under standard conditions to 38 kg and then one of each sex was allocated to each of two finishing diets. These were cereal-based diets with and without 16 g/kg soya oil. Following slaughter at 80 kg, loin chops taken from half of the pigs (two litters per sire) were subjected to detailed investigation of physical, chemical and organoleptic characteristics. Lifetime live-weight gain was similar for both breeds but Duroc-sired pigs had greater voluntary food intakes and poorer food conversion efficiencies in the finishing stage. They also had greater killing-out proportions (775 v. 755 g/kg, P < 0·001) and backfat thickness at slaughter (284 v. 27·2 mm at P1 + P3, P < 0·05). Fat firmness measured by penetrometer at 4°C was lower in Duroc-sired pigs (738 v. 792 units, P < 0·001). The proportion of extractable intramuscular lipid was greater in chops from Duroc-sired pigs (13·8 v. 10·4 g/kg, P < 0·001). There were no significant effects of breed or diet on the eating quality of the grilled chops as assessed by a trained taste panel and a consumer panel.

Two experiments were conducted to elucidate the effects of intra-muscular injection of oestradiol within 1 min of birth (experiment 1) or within 4h of birth (experiment 2) on piglet activity, growth and pre-weaning survival rate. In experiment 1, 248 piglets (25 litters) were alternately injected within litter at birth with either 1 ml peanut oil/saline solution or 0·1 mg oestradiol benzoate in this carrier solution. The subsequent behaviour, growth and survival of these piglets were recorded. Experiment 2 used 38 litters (385 piglets), these being treated by litter with either of the same two treatments as soon after birth as they were found (approx. range 0 to 4 h). Piglet survival data were collected from this field trial. Oestradiol treatment significantly reduced the intervals from birth to reaching the udder (596 v. 740 s, P < 0·05) and from birth to first sucking (1060 v. 1497 s, P < 0·01) relative to control piglets in experiment 1. Treatment had no significant effect on pre-weaning growth rate (experiment 1), but did tend to reduce early postnatal mortality rate in both experiment 1 (7·2 v. 2·4% for control and oestradiol-treated piglets respectively) and experiment 2 (13·0 v. 10·2% for control and oestradiol-treated piglets respectively). It is concluded that oestradiol treatment at, or soon after, birth induces short-term hyperactivity in piglets. This may subsequently be reflected in an improvement in pre-weaning survival rate of piglets, although further data are required to confirm this conclusion.

An experiment was conducted to determine the effect of level and pattern of food intake in post-partum beef cows on the length of the post-partum anoestrous period and associated luteinizing hormone profiles. Forty-six multiparous cows were allocated at calving to one of three feeding regimes: 55 MJ metabolizable energy (ME) per day throughout (LL), 145 M] ME per day throughout (HH), or 55 M] ME per day until 6 weeks post partum and then 145 M] ME per day thereafter (LH). The duration of the post-partum anoestrous period was assessed from plasma progesterone profiles. Luteinizing hormone profiles in the peripheral circulation were determined at weeks 3, 6, 8 and 11 post partum from samples collected every 20 min for 10 h.

Feeding regime had no effect on either the length of the post-partum anoestrous period, being 99, 89 and 91 (s.e.d. 12·2) days for the LL, LH and HH cows respectively, or on any aspect of luteinizing hormone pulsatility. Body condition at calving was negatively correlated with the duration of the post-partum anoestrous period, each unit increase in body condition at calving being associated with a decrease in the post-partum anoestrous period of 86 (s.e. 21·8) days. Luteinizing hormone pulse frequency at 6 weeks post partum was positively correlated with body condition at calving.

This experiment confirms the importance of body condition at calving in influencing the duration of the post-partum anoestrous period and indicates that level and pattern of feeding post partum has little effect when cows calve at a body condition of approximately 2·25.

An experiment was carried out for 4 weeks in early spring with 20 Friesian cows in their 6th month of lactation. Treatments were associated with grazing intensity of Persian clover (Trifolium resupinatum) such that daily pasture intakes ranged from 10·0 to 19·5 kg dry matter (DM) per cow. The marginal return to extra feeding obtained over the whole range of grazing treatments averaged only 0·4 kg milk for each additional kg DM of Persian clover eaten. This was very low considering the quality of the diet on offer (0·73 digestibility in vitro). It is suggested that a leaf fungal disease may have been implicated; this is discussed.

The effect of piggery temperature on daily live-weight gain of triple cross Large White-Duroc pigs was studied. Weaning rate and fattening completion rates were similar among piglets born in different seasons of the year but the average daily weight gain was slower during the early (20 to 40 kg live weight) and intermediate (40 to 60 kg live weight) periods of fattening in the autumn-born group (T < 0·05) whilst during the late period (60 to 80 kg live weight) slower growth rates were found in the summer- and winter-born groups (P > 0·05). In the intermediate period the fastest growth rates (900 g/day) were recorded at piggery temperatures of 16 to 20°C. In the same period the slowest growth rates (602 g/day) were recorded at temperatures of 8°C or lower and at 24°C or higher. The daily live-weight gain during the intermediate period was shown to be related to piggery temperature in a curvilinear manner according to the equation Y = −2·48x2 + 90·44x + 25·37.

The Gompertz equation was used to compute growth curves for three groups of ostriches (Struthio camelus), from Oudtshoorn in South Africa, the Namib desert in Namibia and from Zimbabwe. All were reared under typical intensive farm conditions with ad libitum feeding. There were no significant differences in mature mass between regions but the maximum daily weight gain for males occurred later (day 163) for Oudtshoorn birds, compared with day 121 for Namibian and day 92 for Zimbabwean. Oudtshoorn females reached maximum rate of gain on day 175 compared with day 115 for Namibian and day 114 for Zimbabwean. Comparisons might prove important when planning programmes for the genetic improvement of commercial flocks, but possible influences of food composition and environment should be investigated.

Ease of handling (time to enter and exit scales and dip, and temperament scores) and flight distance were studied in Bos indicus and Bos taurus cattle and their crossbreds. At one research station (LS), 20 cows and 20 female calves, each of N'dama and West African Shorthorn (WASH) cattle were used. At another research station (BRS), 15 cows each of N'dama, Holstein and their crossbreds (NH) were used for the study. In addition a further 20 cows and 20 female calves of the N'dama breed were studied at BRS for comparison with the N'dama at LS. There were no significant differences in ease of handling and flight distance between N'dama and WASH and between N'dama at LS and at BRS. There were significant differences between N'dama, Holstein and NH cows in ease of handling and flight distance. Cows took a shorter time to enter but generally a longer time to exit a scale, had a shorter flight distance and a lower temperament score (P < 0·01) than calves.