Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-ndmmz Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-05-06T01:38:06.464Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

The Presidency of Nicolas Geffrard of Haiti

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 December 2015

John E. Baur*
Affiliation:
Los Angeles, California

Extract

During the early days of 1859, Port-au-Prince was busy with holiday celebrations, dramatic addresses and colorful events. Haitians possess a certain genius for properly observing a great day, and indeed it seemed that halcyon days had at last arrived in the Caribbean. Before the national legislature that April came a new president, a man for all the people. He was a person of medium height, rather slender and very erect and dignified. A mixture of Negro and mulatto elements, the new national hero had a very dark complexion, gray hairs befitting his fifty-three years, and courteous airs. In fact, his decorum was striking, set off as it was with a quiet gentleness, polish and evident idealism that seemed almost out of place in a Haitian warrior who had just dethroned an emperor.

The ownerless imperial crown, symbolic of the recently defunct regime, was brought before the restorer of the old Republic. Fittingly, the chief executive employed allegory to express his adventure into reform. After a long, flowery speech denouncing the exiled Emperor Faustin I, President Nicolas Fabre Geffrard swore fidelity to the popular government, announced some preliminary political changes, and took up a small gavel. With this he struck the crown three times, condemning the magnificent diadem and its regime as he inaugurated the Republic which must not waver. From that day on the crown of Soulouque became a museum piece, but what is symbolized could not be so easily defeated and discarded.

Type
Research Article
Copyright
Copyright © Academy of American Franciscan History 1954

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 L’Illustration (Paris), May 12, 1859.Google Scholar

2 British and Foreign State Papers, 1858–1859 (London, 1867), XLIX, 773775.Google Scholar

3 Ludlow, J. M., “Geffrard, President of Hayti,” Good Words for 1862, III (London), 523524.Google Scholar

4 Harper’s Weekly, February 26, 1859.Google ScholarPubMed

5 Janvier, L. J., Les Constitutions d’Haiti, 1801–1885 (Paris, 1886), p. 272.Google Scholar

6 Pradine, Linstant, Les Codes Haïtiens (Port-au-Prince, n. d.), pp. lvi-Iviii Google Scholar. Herein Pradine includes lists of civil officials and their salaries from 1847 to 1865, showing several significant salary reductions!

7 Ibid, p. xliii. These measures were to secure fiscal honesty.

8 Code Civil d’Haiti (Port-au-Prince, 1864), pp. 1–37.

9 Anti-Slavery Reporter (London), January 1, 1861.Google Scholar

10 Spencer St., John Sir, Hayti, or the Black Republic (London, 1889), p. 318.Google Scholar

11 British and Foreign State Papers, 1863–1864, LTV, pp. 493494 Google Scholar. Under Boyer the army had numbered 40,000 and. 22,000 under Soulouque.

12 Ludlow, op. cit., p. 524.

13 Anti-Slavery Reporter, May 1, 1860.Google Scholar

14 Redpath, James, A Guide to Hayti (Boston, 1861), p. 154 Google Scholar. In 1859 the army cost $555,000. Haiti then had six small ships, the heritage of Soulouque’s reign, but soon added the Geffrard and the 22 de Décembre, named for the day on which Geffrard proclaimed the new republic. See Seward, Frederick W., Reminiscences of a War-Time Statesman and Diplomat, 1830–1914 (New York, 1916), pp. 315316.Google Scholar

15 Redpath, op. cit., pp. 136–137.

16 Seward, op. cit., p. 318, and St. John, op. cit., p. viii.

17 Seward, op. cit., p. 324.

18 Redpath, op. cit., p. 146. See also Melvil-Blancourt, M., “Des Richesses Naturelles de la République Haïtienne et de sa Situation Economique,” Journal des Economistes, XXXI, Series 2 (Paris, September, 1861), 410 Google Scholar. Articles of prime necessity had been reduced from 25–30 per cent import duty to about 20 per cent, yet the Republic’s revenue for 1860 was nearly 1,300,000 piasters from imports.

19 McKnight, Robert, Recognition of Liberia and Hayti (n. p., n. d.), p. 4.Google Scholar

20 Léger, Jacques Nicolas, Recueil des Traités et Conventions de la République d’Haiti (Port-au-Prince, 1891), pp. 84114.Google Scholar

21 British and Foreign State Papers, 1862–1863, LUI, p. 618.Google Scholar

22 Important Commercial Change in Haiti,” Hunt’s Merchants’ Magazine and Commercial Review, XLI (New York, July-December, 1859), 633.Google Scholar

23 British and Foreign State Papers, 1863–1864, LIV, p. 492.Google Scholar

24 Ibid., p. 492. Later events prevented its immediate establishment.

25 Ludlow, op. cit., p. 524.

26 Seward, op. cit., p. 318.

27 Melvil-Blancourt, op. cit., p. 409. See also Stuart, Major R., “Haiti, or Hispaniola,” Journal of the Royal Geographic Society, London, XLVIII (1878), 272274 Google Scholar. Stuart was a British minister to Haiti for several years. He estimated the population at 450,000 to 550,000, of which he claimed 10/11 were Negro. See also Seward, op. cit., p. 324.

28 Melvil-Blancourt, op. cit., p. 411.

29 Hunt’s Merchants’ Magazine, XLVI (January-June, 1862), 271272.Google Scholar

30 St. John, op. cit., p. 369.

31 Ibid., p. 369.

32 British and Foreign State Papers, 1863–1864, LIV, p. 491.Google Scholar

33 Ludlow, op. cit., p. 524.

34 Janvier, op. cit., p. 288.

35 Leyburn, James G., The Haitian People (Durham, N. C., 1941), p. 94.Google Scholar

36 Ibid.

37 Janvier, op. cit., p. 296.

38 Melvil-Blancourt, op. cit., p. 414. See also Fabens, Joseph Warren, Facts about Santo Domingo (New York, 1862).Google Scholar

39 Melvil-Blancourt, op. cit., p. 419.

40 Senate Executive Documents, 37th Cong., 2nd Sess., 1861–1862 (Washington, 1862), 1,6.Google Scholar

41 Charles Sumner, powerful United States Senator, claimed that 490 vessels were in use between his country and Haiti, while but 88 were employed in American-Russian commerce. There were $2,673,682 exports to Haiti, while the United States exported a comparatively small $2,744,219 worth of goods to the Russian Empire. The standard authority for Haitian-United States relations is Logan, Rayford W., The Diplomatic Relations of the United States with Haiti, 1776–1891 (Chapel Hill, N. G., 1941).Google Scholar

42 Anti-Slavery Reporter, April 2, 1860. « Seward, op. cit., p. 322.

44 British and Foreign State Papers, 1866–1867, LVII, p. 1049.Google Scholar

45 Léger, , Recueil des Traités, op. cit., pp. 84114 Google Scholar. This treaty also prevented forced loans, allowed nationals of each to engage in business freely in the other’s domain, granted full liberty of conscience, and forbade Haitians to accept letters of marque to act as privateers against the United States. The treaty was to be in force eight years.

46 Seward, op. cit., p. 323.

47 Redpath, op. cit., p. 10.

48 Ibid.

49 Ibid., pp. 95–96.

50 Annuaire des Deux Mondes (Paris), IX, 927928.Google Scholar

51 Friends’ Intelligencer (Philadelphia), XIX, June 14, 1862.

52 Public Ledger (Philadelphia), October 18, 1861 and December 2, 1861.Google ScholarPubMed

53 Friends’ Intelligencer, XIX, June 14, 1862.Google Scholar

54 Seward, op. cit., p. 325.

55 Redpath, op. cit., p. 63.

56 Public Ledger, July 24, 1860.Google Scholar

57 British and Foreign State Papers, 1861–1862, LII, p. 1222.Google Scholar

58 Logan, Rayford W., op. cit., p. 277 Google Scholar. See also The Economist (London), XIX, April 20, 1861.Google Scholar

59 Redpath, , op. cit., p. 9 Google Scholar. See also Anti-Slavery Reporter, June 1, 1861, and Annuaire des Deux Mondes, X, 715.Google Scholar

60 Britain, Great. Parliamentary Debates, CLXII, 3rd Series, March-May, 1861, pp. 16511652 Google Scholar. The United States protested only vaguely about this act which Seward termed unfriendly.

61 Logan, op. cit., p. 296.

62 Anti-Slavery Reporter, July. 1, 1861.Google Scholar

63 St. John, op. cit., p. 105.

64 Luperón, General Gregorio, Notas autobiográficas y apuntes históricos (Santiago, Dominican Republic, 1939), I, 99.Google Scholar

65 Annuaire des Deux Mondes, XIII, 913.Google Scholar

66 Luperón, , op. cit., I, 269.Google Scholar

67 Ibid., I, 234.

68 Montague, Ludwell Lee, Haiti and the United States, 1714–1938 (Durham, N. C., 1940), p. 97.Google Scholar

69 Luperón, op. cit., II, 21.

70 Papers Relating to Foreign Affairs, 39th Cong., 2nd Sess., Part 2, pp. 510511.Google Scholar

71 Léger, , Recueil des Traités, op. cit., pp. 115118.Google Scholar

72 Janvier, op. cit., p. 288.

73 British and Foreign State Papers, 1863–1864, LIV, p. 496.Google Scholar

74 Harper’s Weekly, IX, September 2, 1865 Google Scholar. See also St. John, op. cit., pp. 210–220. Here is an excellent account of the trial early in 1864 of cannibals. Some persons were guilty of murdering a girl for these purposes. The trial lasted three days. All culprits were condemned to death and were executed on February 13. This time Geffrard was firm against pardon, despite the anger of many persons. The English-speaking press spread the story of this sensational case from London to Los Angeles!

75 British and Foreign State Papers, 1862–1863, LIII, p. 619.Google Scholar

76 Léger, , Recueil des Traités, op. cit., pp. 5962.Google Scholar

77 Redpath, , op. cit., p. 139.Google Scholar

78 Spirit of Missions, XXXI (New York, 1866), 323.Google Scholar

79 British and Foreign State Papers, 1866–18G7, LVII, pp. 10521053 Google Scholar. Testard de Cosquer brought a group of French clergy with him, 1864.

80 Janvier, , op. cit., pp. 278 and 285.Google Scholar

81 Ibid., p. 278.

82 St. John, op. cit., p. 287. See also Bainbridge, William F., Around the World Tour of Christian Missions (New York, 1882), p. 506.Google Scholar

83 Spirit of Missions, XXXI (1866), 508510.Google Scholar

84 Ibid., XXXI, 455. This is an interesting article entitled “Haiti,” by J. Theodore Holly, pp. 454–456.

85 Ibid., p. 456.

86 Hunt’s Merchants’ Magazine, XLIII, 125.Google Scholar

87 Redpath, op. cit., p. 143.

88 Ibid., p. 142.

89 British and Foreign State Papers, 1863–1864, LIV, pp. 495496.Google Scholar

90 Ibid., 1866–1867, LII, p. 1053. See Brutus, Edner, Instruction publique en Haiti, 1492–1945 (Port-au-Prince, 1948).Google Scholar

91 For the first time school laws were actually enforced. School statistics show a student and school increase of 50 per cent from 1860 to 1865, but only a 25 per cent gain from then until the 1880’s. See Logan, Rayford W., “Education in Haiti,” Journal of Negro History, XV (October, 1930), 436.Google Scholar

92 British and Foreign State Papers, 1861–1862, LII, p. 1054.Google Scholar

93 Leyburn, op. cit., p. 277.

94 Ludlow, op. cit., p. 525.

95 Seward, op. cit., p. 316.

96 St. John, op. cit., p. 328.

97 British and Foreign State Papers, 1863–1864, LIV, pp. 492494.Google Scholar

98 Ibid., 1861–1862, LII, pp. 923–925. See also ibid., 1862–1863, LIII for the postal convention’s additional articles, pp. 264–265.

99 Léger, , Recueil des Traités, op. cit., pp. 7483 Google Scholar. France, Brazil, Haiti, Portugal and Italy were parties. This was to be a neutral line in wartime. Haiti reserved the right to negotiate on the nature, quota and mode of payment of the subsidy it was proposed to accord the concessionaire, Pier Alberto Balestrini.

100 Ludlow, , op. cit., p. 525 Google Scholar. Geffrard’s life was not a happy one. His only son, eighteen-year-old Clodomir, died early in 1859. His youngest daughter became the victim of an assassin, while his eldest daughter died in childbirth. Learning that an army officer plotted to kill him, Geffrard is said to have taken him to a cemetery, and there before his son’s grave he said, “I know you carry pistols to shoot me on the first opportunity. Do it here. Let me fall on the grave of my son. Do you hesitate? Take my pistols if your own fail you.” The culprit broke down and was forgiven. Legend has it that Geffrard retained him in his old station!

101 Ibid., p. 526.

102 St.John, , op. cit., p. 106.Google Scholar

103 Public Ledger, May 30, 1862.Google Scholar

104 British and Foreign State Papers, 1862–1863, LIII, pp. 617619.Google Scholar

105 Annuaire des Deux Mondes XII, 913.Google Scholar

106 British and Foreign State Papers, 1862–1863, LIII, pp. 621622.Google Scholar

107 St. John, op. cit., pp. 107–109.

108 L’Illustration, October 14, 1865 Google Scholar. This article, on pp. 245–246, is by A. Liechty.

109 Harper’s Weekly, August 5, 1865. A reporter from Haiti told of women with cannonballs on their heads while rusting cannon were dragged through the streets of Cap Haitien, entirely by women.

110 Annuaire des Deux Mondes, XIII, 917918.Google Scholar

111 Harper’s Weekly, September 2, 1865. See also Papers Relating to Foreign Affairs, 39th Cong., 2nd Sess., Part 2, pp. 499–526, for H. E. Peck’s reports.

112 Papers Relating to Foreign Affairs, op. cit., p. 525 Google Scholar, contains Peck’s letter to Seward, October 22, 1866, telling of the 800,000 francs to be paid to France by April, but of which only 300,000 actually was given. Napoleon III refused to reduce the debt for the next six years.

113 Ibid., p. 511, Peck to Seward, March 26, 1866.

114 Public Ledger, April 9, 1866.Google Scholar

115 Globus X (Braunschweig, 1866), 188 Google Scholar. See also New York Journal, March 25, 1866 Google Scholar, for a firsthand account of the great fire and the wild scenes that followed it.

116 British and Foreign State Papers, 1867–1868, LVIII, p. 242.Google Scholar

117 Papers Relating to Foreign Affairs, op. cit., pp. 521–523.

118 St. John, op. cit., p. 111.

119 Papers Relating to Foreign Affairs, op. cit., pp. 304–305. Peck presents in a letter dated February 23, 1867, to Seward his fresh impressions of the fatal coup as he observed it.

120 Michel, Antoine, L’Avènement du Général Fabre Nicolas Geffrard a la Présidence d’Haiti (Port-au-Prince, 1932), pp. 138141 Google Scholar, lists names of citizens shot during the first four years of Geffrard’s administration. Sixteen were executed in the Guerrier Prophète affair, fourteen in the Salomon revolt, and seventeen after the Aimé Legros uprising of May, 1863. See also Papers Relating to Foreign Affairs, 40th Cong., 2nd Sess., Part 2, pp. 305–306, for Peck’s discussion of the final days of Geffrard’s rule.

121 Ibid, p. 306.

122 Ibid., p. 307. Geffrard’s property was soon sacked by mobs.

123 Ibid.

124 L’Illustration, June 8, 1867 Google Scholar, article dated Port-au-Prince, April 23, 1867, by “un haitien.”

125 St. John, op. cit., pp. 182–183.

126 Hazard, Samuel, Santo Domingo, Past and Present, With a Glance at Hayti (London, 1873), p. 428 Google Scholar. See also Illustrated London News, October 29, 1859 Google Scholar. Geffrard was a constant worker, hardly typical of a hedonist; his labors lasted 14–16 hours a day!

127 Janvier, , op. cit., p. 269.Google Scholar

128 L’Illustration, October 14, 1865 Google Scholar. Alexandre Bonneau, a prolific writer on Haiti, tells of A. B. Ardouin, senator, educator, geographer and Geffrard’s minister to France, one of Haiti’s giants.

129 Harper’s Weekly, September 2, 1865 Google Scholar. Herein James Redpath tells his invaluable opinions of Geffrard.

130 Ludlow, op. cit., p. 524.

131 Habich, Eduard, “Eine Deputation von Kaufleuten bei Fabre Geffrard, Prasidenten von Haiti,” Globus, XI, 8788 Google Scholar. This was upon the occasion of the visit of sixty merchants to Geffrard’s palace in 1866. If accurate, then Geffrard was also adept at telling anecdotes.

132 Saint-Domingue et les nouveaux interets maritimes de l’Empire,” Revue des Deux Mondes, XXXIII (1861), 655.Google Scholar

133 St.John, , op. cit., p. 182.Google Scholar

134 Ibid., p. 112.

135 Leyburn, , op. cit., p. 222.Google Scholar

136 Spirit of Missions, XXXIV, 359360 Google Scholar. Herein is a letter from the Rev. St. Denis Bauduy dated Cap Haitien, February 12, 1869, telling of the turmoil since Nicolas Geffrard’s ouster, the inflation, spiritual chaos and poverty.