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Coercion, Reform, and the Welfare State: The Campaign Against “Begging” in Mexico City during the 1930s*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 December 2015

Enrique C. Ochoa
Enrique C. Ochoa*
Affiliation:
California State University, Los Angeles, California
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Extract

On October 8, 1930, on her way to the Plaza Hidalgo in Mexico City to purchase alfalfa for her employer's poultry, Elvira C. was forced into a police truck. Despite her protests, she was taken to a detention center known as El Carmen. The 28 year old widow from Puebla was arrested for begging and placed in the custody of Mexico City's Public Welfare Agency. After four-and-a-half months in welfare institutions, a social worker recorded Elvira's work history, inquired into her living situation and drinking habits, and visited her place of residence and her place of work. The social worker finally concluded that Elvira was not a beggar and should be released. On March 18, 1931, over five months after being detained, Elvira was ordered released.

Type
Research Article
Information
The Americas , Volume 58 , Issue 1 , July 2001 , pp. 39 - 64
Copyright
Copyright © Academy of American Franciscan History 2001

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Footnotes

*

Earlier versions of this essay were presented at the Latin American Studies Association XXI International Congress in Chicago and at the Mexican Studies Working Group at Stanford University. I wish to thank the participants and audience of these meetings for many thoughtful comments. I also benefited from critical readings and comments from Ann Blum, Donna Guy, John Kaup, Julie Kaup, David Lorey, Gilda Ochoa, Drew Wood, and the anonymous reviewers for The Americas.

References

1 Archivo Histórico de la Secretaría de Salud (hereafter AHSS), Fondo de Beneficencia Pública (BP), Sección de Asistencia (AS), Asuntos de Asilados (AA), Legajo 6, exp. 20.

2 The term “beggar,” then, is highly problematic since it was a label ascribed to Mexico City residents by public officials and the media. Many of those deemed beggars had never begged in their lives and those that did, did not see themselves as beggars. In the course of my longer-term study, I am in the process of exploring how those arrested in this program identified themselves as a way of challenging the simple constructions of policy makers. In this study, the term “beggar” refers to the way that officials and the media portrayed the people caught up in these sweeps.

3 Arrom, Silvia Marina, “The Mexico City Poor House, 1774–1884: A Failed Experiment in Social Control,” presented at IX Conference of Mexican and North American Historians, Mexico City 27 October 1994 Google Scholar; Arrom, Silvia Marina, “¿De la caridad a la beneficencia? Las reformas de la asistencia pública desde la perspectiva del Hospicio de pobres de la ciudad de México, 1856–1871,” in Illades, Carlos y Kuri, Ariel Rodríguez comps. Ciudad de México: Instituciones, actores sociales y conflicto pólitico, 1774–1934 (Zamora, Michoacán: El Colegio de Michoacán, 1996.)Google Scholar

4 See Rivera-Garza, Cristina, “The Masters of the Streets: Bodies, Power, and Modernity in Mexico, 1867–1930,” (Ph.D. diss., University of Houston, 1995).Google Scholar

5 For elaboration of this formulation, see Scott, James C., Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998).Google Scholar

6 For an analysis that explores this idea in the context of the United States see Kelley, Robin D.G., “The Black Poor and the Politics of Opposition in a New South City, 1929–1970,” in Katz, Michael B. ed., The Underclass Debate: Views From History (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993), pp. 293–333.Google Scholar The literature that deals with the 1930s and urban areas tends to focus on organized workers with relatively little attention to the subproletariat. This, however, is changing; see Bliss, Katherine, “The Science of Redemption: Syphillis, Sexual Promiscuity, and Reformism in Revolutionary Mexico City,” Hispanic American Historical Review 79:1 (February 1999), pp. 1–40.Google Scholar

7 Beteta, Ramón, La mendicidad en México (México, 1930), p. 72 Google Scholar and Estadísticas historicas de México, tomo 1 (México: INEGI, 1985), p. 24.

8 See Davis, Diane E., Urban Leviathan: Mexico City in the Twentieth Century (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1994), pp. 85–86.Google Scholar For discussions of basic food and milk distribution see Ochoa, Enrique C., Feeding Mexico: The Political Uses of Food Since 1910 (Wilmington, Del.: SR Books, 2000)Google Scholar; Ochoa, Enrique C., “Reappraising State Intervention and Social Policy in Mexico: The Case of Milk in the Distrito Federal during the Twentieth Century,” Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos 15:1 (Winter 1999), pp. 73–100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

9 Cárdenas, Enrique, La industrialización mexicana durante la gran depresión (México: El Colegio de México, 1987), p. 34.Google Scholar

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11 Cited in Meyer, , Historia de la Revolución Mexicana, 1928–1934, p. 88.Google Scholar For a discussion of the impact of the crisis on the working classes see, Córdova, Amoldo, La clase obrera en la historia de México en una época de crisis (1928–1934) (México: Siglo Veintiuno Eds., 1980), chapter 3.Google Scholar

12 See, for example, Joseph, Gilbert M. and Nugent, Daniel, eds. Everyday Forms of State Formation: Revolution and The Negotiation of Rule in Modern Mexico (Durham: Duke University Press, 1994).Google Scholar

13 For elite attitudes towards the subproletari at during the Porfiriato, see Johns, Michael, The City of Mexico in the Age of Díaz. (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1997),Google Scholar especially chapter 3. French's, William A Peaceful and Working People: Manners, Morals, and Class Formation in Northern Mexico (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1996)Google Scholar, treats efforts to inculcate a capitalist work ethic.

14 Navarro, Moisés González, La pobreza en México (México: El Colegio de México, 1985), pp. 200–203.Google Scholar

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17 17 July 1930 letter to Jefe de Departamento de Acción Educativa, Eficiencia y Catastros Sociales from Jefe del DDF. Archivo de la Sec de Salud, Fondo: Beneficiencia Pública; Sección: Asistencia; Serie: Depto. de Acción Educativa y Social (AHSS-BP-AS-DAES), Leg. 2, exp. 2.

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19 For an institutional overview that stresses continuity, see McLeod, James Angus, “Public Health, Social Assistance and the Consolidation of the Mexican State: 1888–1940,” (Ph.D diss., Tulane University, 1990)Google Scholar; “Historia y funcionamiento de los Establecimentos de la Beneficencia. Datos proporcionados al Dr. Jimenez Ortiz, comisionado por el C. Presidente de la República,” April 1930. AHSS-BP-AS-DAES, Leg. 2, exp. 1.

20 Beteta, Ramón, La mendicidad en México (México: Beneficencia Pública de DF, 1930), p. 1.Google Scholar

21 Ramón Beteta to Eyler Simpson, 11 February 1931. AHSS-BP-AS-DAES, Leg. 1, exp. 11.

22 Beteta, , La mendicidad en México, p. 17.Google Scholar

23 Beteta, , La mendicidad en México, p. 41.Google Scholar

24 Beteta, , La mendicidad en México, p. 106.Google Scholar

25 Beteta, , La mendicidad en México, pp. 106–107.Google Scholar

26 “Ramon Beteta, Político y hacendista,” in Wilkie, James W. and Wilkie, Edna Monzón de Mexico Visto en el Siglo XX: Entrevistas de historia oral. (México: Instituto Mexicano de Investigaciones Económicas, 1969), pp. 42–44.Google Scholar

27 Beteta, , La mendicidad en México, pp. 101–103.Google Scholar

28 “Ramon Beteta, Político y hacendista,” pp. 42–44.

29 14 August 1933 letter from José M. Tapia, president of Beneficencia Pública de DF to jefe del Departamento de Distrito Federal. SSA-AHSS-BP-AS-DAES, Leg. 6, exp. 2; Excelsior, 21 March 1931. For discussion of a similar process and the long term impact it has on individuals and historical memory see Stern, Alexandra Minna, “Buildings, Boundaries, and Blood: Medicalization and Nation-Building on the U.S.-Mexico Border, 1910–1930,” Hispanic American Historical Review 79:1 (February 1999), pp. 41–81.Google Scholar

30 El Universal, 16 July 1931.

31 “Para desterrar la mendicidad es necesario elevar el nivel standard de la vida en el país,” Excelsior, 21 March 1931.

32 This was an official agency with representatives from different sectors of society. For background on the consultative bodies, see Davis, , Urban Leviathan, pp. 67–21.Google Scholar

33 “Una enérgica campaña a la mendicidad en la ciudad,” El Universal, 19 August 1932.

34 “La mendicidad profesional,” El Universal, 20 August 1932.

35 The scandal at the General Hospital consumed the agency throughout late July and nearly all of August. El Universal, 4 August 1932; El Nacional, 8 August 8; Excelsior, 16 August 1932; and El Popular, 26 August 1932.

36 “En espantosas condiciones viven hoy los locos alojados en el Manicomio General,” Excelsior, 4 October 1932.

37 “El ciego, víctima de una venganza inicua,” El Universal Gráfico, 7 October 1932.

38 14 August 1933 letter from José M. Tapia, president of Beneficencia Pública de DF to jefe del Departamento de Distrito Federal. SSA-AHSS-BP-AS-DAES, Leg. 6, exp. 2.

39 “Campaña Contra la Mendicidad emprendida en 13 Agosto—Resumen del periodo 13 Agosto a 27 Septiembre.” AHSS-BP-AS-DAES, Leg. 6, exp. 2.

40 “Datos estadísticos preliminaries de las dos razias de mendigos del año próximo pasado,” 12 February 1934. AHSS-BP-AS-DAES, Leg. 7, exp. 2.

41 Letter to President of the Republic from JM Tapia President of Junta Directiva del AHSS-BP DF 12 February 1934. AHSS-BP-AS-DAES, Leg. 7, exp. 2.

42 Letter to President of the Republic from JM Tapia President of Junta Directiva del AHSS-BP DF 12 February 1934. AHSS-BP-AS-DAES, Leg. 7, exp. 2.

43 Summary of meeting on the Campaña Contra la Mendicidad,” 22 June 1934. AHSS-BP-AS-DAES, Leg. 7, exp. 2.

44 Memo on Campaña Contra la Mendicidad, 5 April 1935. AHSS-BP-AS-DAES, Leg. 7, exp. 2.

45 La asistencia pública bajo la administración del Presidente Cárdenas (México, 1936), p. 31.

46 20 June 1936 letter to Lic. Raúl Castellanos, Procurador de Justicia del DF, from jefe del Dept. de DF. AHSS-BP-AS-DAES, Leg. 2, exp. 2.

47 21 July 1936 letter from Enrique Hernández Alvarez to Jefe del Departamento del DE AHSS-BP-AS-DAES, Leg. 2, exp. 2.

48 “Amplio Plan de Asistencia Pública en Campaña Contra la Mendicidad” Asistencia Social (20 November 1938), pp. 9 and 11.

49 “Informe de las personas recogidas por la campaña contra la mendicidad y establecimientos en que fueron internados al periodo comprendiendo del dia 1 de agosto al 25 de julio de 1939” (26 July 1939). AHSS-BP-DGA, Leg. 7, exp. 5.

50 “Editorial,” Asistencia 1:1 (15 August 1934).

51 Sr. General D. Tapia, José M., “La asistencia social como función de estado,” Asistencia, (pub mensual de la AHSS-BP) 1:4 (November 1934).Google Scholar

52 14 August 1933 letter from José M. Tapia, president of Beneficiencia Pública de DF to jefe del Departamento de Distrito Federal. AHSS-BP-AS-DAES, Leg. 6, exp. 2.

53 “Informes de labores, enero al febrero de 1931, Casa Amiga de la Obrera.” AHSS-BP-AS-DAES, Leg. 1, exp. 10.

54 “Observaciones e investigaciones sobre el trabajo de la Casa del Niño,” 28 September 1932.” AHSS-BP-AS-DAES, Leg 2, exp. 12.

55 El Universal, 22 October 1932.

56 Numerous photographs of this can be found in the Archivo Fotográfico Enrique Díaz at Mexico's Archivo General de la Nación, carpeta 1. See also La asistencia pública bajo la administración de Presidente Cárdenas (México, 1936).

57 El Universal, 4 March 1934.

58 La asistencia pública bajo la administración de Presidente Cárdenas, p. 20.

59 Letter to President of the República from J.M. Tapia President of Junta Directiva de Beneficiencia Pública del DF, 12 February 1934. AHSS-BP-AS-DAES, Leg. 7, exp. 2.

60 “Estudio numero 2 sobre la Campaña Contra la Mendicidad” April 1934, AHSS-BP-AS-DAES, Leg. 7, exp. 4.

61 “Resumen de los labores desarrollados por la Secretaría de Asistencia Pública hasta noviembre de 1939, bajo la gestión del Secretario de Estado Lic. Silvestre Guerrero” Asistencia Social 1:V (November-December 1939); McLeod, , “Public Health, Social Assistance and the Consolidation of the Mexican State: 1888–1940,” pp. 197–198.Google Scholar

62 “Asistencia pública y restitución económica” Asistencia Social, 20 November 1938, p. 3, and “Cuotas, aunque pequeñas, por todo servicio de la asistencia pública” Asistencia Social, 31 December 1938, p. 5.

63 “30 nuevos maestros salen a varios lugares,” Excelsior, 13 May 1934.

64 For an insightful discussion of labels in the context of the “underclass” in the United States see, Gans, Herbert J., The War Against the Poor: The Underclass and Antipoverty Policy (New York: Basic Books, 1995).Google Scholar Also see Katz, Michael B, “The Urban ‘Underclass’ as a Metaphor of Social Transformation,” in Katz, ed. The “Underclass” Debate, pp. 3–23.Google Scholar

65 “Resultado preliminar del censo de los mendigos recogidos en Octubre de 1930.” AHSS-BP-AS-DAES, Leg. 2, exp. 6.

66 I have collected over 200 cases of individuals detained by the Campaña Contra la Mendicidad and I am in the process of analyzing their lives, their perceptions, and ways that they resisted such intrusion into their lives. These 100 cases are the first cases in the file listed alphabetically.

67 Derived from files in AHSS-BP-AS-DAES, Legajo 6.

68 “Resultado preliminar del censo de los mendigos recogidos en Octubre de 1930” AHSS-BP-AS-DAES, Leg. 2, exp. 6.

69 AHSS-BP-AS-DAES, Leg. 6, exp. 12.

70 AHSS-BP-AS-DAES, Leg. 6, exp. 16.

71 AHSS-BP-AS-AA, Leg. 6, exp. 31.

72 Chávez, Aída Valero, El trabajo social en México: Desarrollo y perspectivas (México: UNAM Escuela Nacional de Trabajo Social, 1994), p. 47.Google Scholar

73 Soto, Shirlene, Emergence of the Modern Mexican Woman: Her Participation in Revolution and Struggle for Equality, 1910–1940 (Denver: Arden Press Inc., 1990).Google Scholar

74 For a discussion of social workers during this period see Bliss, Katherine, “The Science of Redemption,” pp. 20–25.Google Scholar

75 AHSS-BP-AS-AA, Leg. 7, exp. 42.

76 AHSS-BP-AS-AA, Leg. 6, exp. 31.

77 AHSS-BP-AS-AA, Leg. 7, exp. 13.

78 AHSS-BP-AS-AA, Leg. 7, exp. 33.

79 AHSS-BP-AS-AA, Leg. 7, exp. 24.

80 AHSS-BP-AS-AA, Leg. 6, exp. 14.

81 AHSS-BP-AS-AA, Leg. 7, exp. 32; AHSS-BP-AS-AA, Leg. 6, exp. 16.

82 AHSS-BP-AS-AA, Leg. 6, exp. 19.

83 Report of inspector Gustavo Abascal, 27 September 1937. AHSS-BP-DAES, Leg. 7, exp. 2.

84 Report from Escuela de Ciegos y Sordo-Mudos, 20 March 1932. AHSS-BP-DAES, Leg. 4, exp. 3.

85 AHSS-BP-AS-AA, Leg. 7, exp. 40.

86 “Resultado preliminar del censo de los mendigos recogidos en Octubre de 1930” AHSS-BP-AS-DAES, Leg. 2, exp. 6.

87 Simon, Jonathan, Poor Discipline: Parole and the Social Control of the Underclass, 1890–1990 (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1993), pp. 39–40.Google Scholar