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9970 results in European history: general interest

Page 58 of 499

  • 7 - “Nos lingua, nos kultura, nos identidadi”: Postcolonial Language Planning and Promotion in Cabo Verde and the Cape Verdean Diaspora

  • from Part 1 - Atlantic Ocean Islands
  • Edited by Toyin Falola, R. Joseph Parrott, Danielle Porter Sanchez
  • Book:
    African Islands
    Published by:
    Boydell & Brewer
    Published online:
    31 August 2019
    Print publication:
    20 June 2019, pp 208-242

  • Summary

    This chapter offers a new appraisal of scholarly and popular representations of Cape Verdean language and culture, taking as its subject promotional and planning activities from Cape Verdean independence in 1975 to the present day. I argue that historical derogatory tropes of degeneracy, inferiority, and impurity applied to Creole cultures have hindered efforts toward language parity between Portuguese—the Republic of Cabo Verde's official colonial language—and Cape Verdean Creole (CVC)—the vernacular of the population. The tropes stem from what noted linguist Michel DeGraff has termed Creole exceptionalism, the widespread and often harmful belief that “Creole languages form an exceptional class on phylogenetic and/or typological grounds.” Drawing on extensive archival and ethnographic research in West Africa, Europe, and North America, I analyze major scholarly, literary, artistic, and legislative developments of each decade, with an eye toward the contributions of cultural activists working to valorize CVC. Interventions in language and cultural planning have been made on three continents by institutions like the Cape Verdean Ministry of Culture, the Mass achusetts Public School System, and the Port uguese Ministry of Education yet remain limited in their efficacy. When these interventions are studied together, it becomes apparent that debates surrounding the promotion of CVC language and culture center on contentious postcolonial political ideologies, complex notions of local versus global identity, and exceptionalist questions of Cabo Verde's “Africanness,” “Portugueseness,” and “Creoleness,” often stalling the reforms of scholars and policy makers and profoundly affecting the life chances of CVC speakers. Throughout, I contend that popular culture, especially literature and music, longtime safe spaces for CVC, have played an integral role in preserving and promoting the language both in Cabo Verde and the diaspora.

    The celebration and reclamation of Cape Verdean culture, especially through language, literature, and music, played an essential role in the movement for Cabo Verde's independence from Portugal. As such, authors, lyricists, composers, and performers played an integral part in the promotion of CVC. Following independence, such work multiplied rapidly as a result of government sponsorship, liberation from Portuguese censorship, and the proliferation of educational and printing opportunities. Nonetheless, Manuel Veiga, a leading Cape Verdean linguist and minister of culture from 1999 to 2009, writes: “it must also be recognized that the major fort where CVC resisted the great glottophagic waves were orality and oral traditions.”

  • 1 - The Canaries to Africa: The Atlantic Strategy of “To Be or Not to Be”

  • from Part 1 - Atlantic Ocean Islands
  • Edited by Toyin Falola, R. Joseph Parrott, Danielle Porter Sanchez
  • Book:
    African Islands
    Published by:
    Boydell & Brewer
    Published online:
    31 August 2019
    Print publication:
    20 June 2019, pp 39-67

  • Summary

    While the Canaries undoubtedly belong geographically to the African continent, and although their first settlers came from Africa, inhabitants have not always accepted this connection. From the Castilian conquest onward, the islands formed an eminently Atlantic territory that served as a bridge between Europe, America, and Africa. The intensity and consistency of relations with the latter continent were quite strong throughout the centuries. However, as a colonized territory, its capacity for decisions was limited and depended on the choices made outside of the archipelago, including conversations about relations with Africa.

    The Canaries was always a territory that stood out in its relation with Africa and Africans, both north and south of the Sahara. In comparison with the rest of Spain, its linkages with the continent of Africa have been undoubtedly the most regular. Various causes explain this fact. First, it is necessary to highlight the geographical position of the Canaries. The archipelago is situated on the African tectonic plate, only about sixty miles from the continent, while it is 680 miles from the closest point of Europe. Due to its political allegiance, the Canaries forms part of the European Union, which recognizes its ultraperipheral character; that is to say, it lies beyond the traditional frontiers of Europe itself.

    In contrast, throughout its history, Canarian culture has reflected its tricontinental nature, mixing African, European, and American influences in different proportions depending on the historical moment under consideration. Because of its role as an intersection of routes, the Canaries developed as a crossing place obligatory for Spanish interests in Africa in addition to those of other European authorities and, more recently since the beginning of the twentieth century, world powers. The Canaries works as a gateway that opens in various directions, one that is permeable for comings and goings. Moreover, due to its special historical development, the regularity of contacts has been constant to the point where the development of life on the islands cannot be understood without this bond.

    Along with the geographical position, there are other conditioning factors that limited the connections with the African continent. One of these is the development of the Canarian productive forces themselves and the productive model developed at each historic economic cycle.

  • 5 - Cursing in Bioko and Annobón: Repeating Islands that Don't Repeat

  • from Part 1 - Atlantic Ocean Islands
  • Edited by Toyin Falola, R. Joseph Parrott, Danielle Porter Sanchez
  • Book:
    African Islands
    Published by:
    Boydell & Brewer
    Published online:
    31 August 2019
    Print publication:
    20 June 2019, pp 157-169

  • Summary

    All the infections that the sun sucks up

    From bogs, fens, flats, on Prosper fall, and make him

    By inchmeal a disease! His spirits hear me,

    And yet I needs must curse.

    —William Shakespeare, The Tempest

    Shakespeare's The Tempest is about the relations between two cultures: one imperial, the other a dependent island. There are many possible allegorical allusions to the area out of which Prospero and company are sailing, and one of them is the Spanish Empire. But the allegorical significance of Caliban (the island dweller) has much to do with the precivilized island where he resides. His relationship with Prospero is not a binary opposition, as both Shakespeare and certain proponents of postcolonial studies want to imply (in the former case unwittingly): to simply describe it as a relation of oppressor to oppressed, colonizer to colonized, civilized to uncivilized, dominator to dominated, speaker to voiceless would be to deny that complexity and the multifariousness of their interactions and symbolic importance.

    In an oft-cited essay “Learning to Curse,” Stephen Greenblatt goes beyond the obvious social and historical relations between the two pivotal characters by centering his discussion of The Tempest on the act of cursing. Caliban rejects Prospero's gift of language as an act of defiance, and, as Shakespeare implies to us, his defiance is to speak on his own terms as he says to Prospero in one of his first speeches: “This island's mine … which thou tak'st from me.” And later on,

    But they'll nor pinch,

    Fright me with urchin-shows, pitch me I'th'mire;

    Nor lead me, like a firebrand, in the dark

    Out of my way.

    (Shakespeare, The Tempest, act 2, scene 2, p. 65.)

    The alliteration of the p sound—the P of Prospero (“on Prosper fall”) as well as “pinch” and “pitch”—is Shakespeare's way of allowing his islander to curse, as he asserts that no one can lead him, that he shall go his own way.

    Addressing myself to the theme of African islands, I want to emphasize (as does Greenblatt) the discursive aspect of the Caliban-Prospero relationship in terms of the island, its idea, both real and imaginary, by focusing on two islands, equally real and imaginary, in the Gulf of Guinea: Annobón and Bioko.

  • 10 - The Mascarenes, Indian Ocean Africa, and Global Labor Migration during the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries

  • from Part 2 - Indian Ocean Islands
  • Edited by Toyin Falola, R. Joseph Parrott, Danielle Porter Sanchez
  • Book:
    African Islands
    Published by:
    Boydell & Brewer
    Published online:
    31 August 2019
    Print publication:
    20 June 2019, pp 294-316

  • Summary

    The Mascarene Islands of Mauritius and Réunion have long languished on the periphery of African studies. Surveys of African history pay little or no attention to the islands or the Mauritian dependencies of Rodrigues and, until they became a separate British Crown colony in 1903, the Seychelles. This indifference stems partly from the islands’ geographical isolation hundreds of miles east of the African mainland and Madagascar. The islands’ shallow historiographical footprint also reflects the fact that Mauritius and Réunion were not occupied permanently by humans until 1638 and 1663, respectively, while Rodrigues remained uninhabited until 1756 and the Seychelles were not colonized until 1770. The continuing reluctance of many Africanists to look beyond the beaches at Mogadishu, Mombasa, and Mozambique as they reconstruct eastern and southern Africa's history has likewise helped to ensure that the islands continue to be ignored. So has the fact that coming to terms with Mascarene history entails exploring complex patterns of social, economic, cultural, and political interaction between Indians, Southeast Asians, and Chinese as well as Africans, Malagasies, and Europeans. The failure of Mauritian, Réunionnais, and Seychellois historians to situate local developments in regional, global, or comparative contexts further reinforces the perception that the islands played little or no role in African history during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.

    Similar attitudes plague studies of labor migration in the European colonial world. The pervasive Atlantic-centrism in modern slavery studies continues to hobble our understanding of European slave trading and often obscures the fact that millions of enslaved Africans reached parts of the world other than the Americas between the sixteenth and midnineteenth centuries. Studies of transoceanic slave trading in the Indian Ocean are, in turn, afflicted by a high degree of Africa-centrism and a tendency to focus on the northwestern Indian Ocean to the exclusion of other parts of this oceanic world. This practice of privileging certain geographic regions over others is matched by a propensity to draw a sharp dividing line between the pre- and postemancipation eras in the colonial world and an attendant proclivity to view the free and forced migrant labor trades that flourished before and after the abolition of slavery in the British Empire in 1834 as separate and distinct phenomena unto themselves. Studies of the slaves, convicts, and indentured laborers who reached the Mascarenes between the late seventeenth and early twentieth centuries attest as much.

  • Debt-oriented Capital Structure and Economic Growth: Panel Evidence for OECD Countries

  • Syed Munawar Shah, Mariani Abdul-Majid, Zulkefly Abdul Karim
  • Journal:
    European Review / Volume 27 / Issue 4 / October 2019
    Published online by Cambridge University Press:
    19 June 2019, pp. 519-542

  • This paper examines the relationship between debt-oriented capital structure and economic growth by analysing a panel data of 16 European countries, based on the availability of data. We find that the corporate leverage in financial and non-financial corporations affects economic growth negatively. Furthermore, the results indicate that the leverage in non-financial corporations affects economic growth more than the leverage in financial corporations. This is due to the direct relationship between economic growth and the real sector and the fact that non-financial corporations in OECD countries hold more debt as compared with financial corporations.

  • The AKP Government from its Formation to the Popular Uprising in June 2013 (Part I)

  • Ercan Gündoğan
  • Journal:
    European Review / Volume 27 / Issue 4 / October 2019
    Published online by Cambridge University Press:
    19 June 2019, pp. 468-489

  • The article starts with the analysis of the origin and development of the Justice and Development Party (AKP) until the 2013 Gezi Uprisings. It tries to show that the AKP first tried to survive in a defensive manner in the so-called ‘Kemalist secular republic’, and thus established strategic relations with non- or anti-Kemalist sections of society. It then chose an offensive strategy to maintain its power against attacks from traditional political and ideological forces in Turkey, such as the army, mainstream political parties and the official ideology of the Republic. However, it is argued that the more power it accumulates the more it loses or leaves its allies and the more it is alienated. As a result, it becomes more authoritarian. The article will be followed by a second part to be published in the next issue of this journal, which deals with the reactions to AKP’s authoritarian and offensive politics and ideology, and the new measures AKP has taken for its survival.

  • From Unconscious Inference to the Beholder’s Share: Predictive Perception and Human Experience

  • Anil K. Seth
  • Journal:
    European Review / Volume 27 / Issue 3 / July 2019
    Published online by Cambridge University Press:
    14 June 2019, pp. 378-410

  • Science and art have long recognized that perceptual experience depends on the involvement of the experiencer. In art history, this idea is captured by Ernst Gombrich’s ‘beholder’s share’. In neuroscience, it traces to Helmholtz’s concept of ‘perception as inference’, which is enjoying renewed prominence in the guise of ‘prediction error minimization’ (PEM) or the ‘Bayesian brain’. The shared idea is that our perceptual experience – whether of the world, of ourselves, or of an artwork – depends on the active ‘top-down’ interpretation of sensory input. Perception becomes a generative act, in which perceptual, cognitive, affective, and sociocultural expectations conspire to shape the brain’s ‘best guess’ of the causes of sensory signals. In this article, I explore the parallels between the Bayesian brain and the beholders’ share, illustrated, somewhat informally, with examples from Impressionist, Expressionist, and Cubist art. By connecting phenomenological insights from these traditions with the cognitive neuroscience of predictive perception, I outline a reciprocal relationship in which art reveals phenomenological targets for neurocognitive accounts of subjectivity, while the concepts of predictive perception may in turn help make mechanistic sense of the beholder’s share. This is not standard neuroaesthetics – the attempt to discover the brain basis of aesthetic experience – nor is it any kind of neuro-fangled ‘theory of art’. It is instead an examination of one way in which art and brain science can be equal partners in revealing deep truths about human experience.

  • How can a ‘Responsible’ European Union Contribute to the Implementation of the Responsibility to Protect?

  • Pinar Gözen Ercan, Defne Günay
  • Journal:
    European Review / Volume 27 / Issue 4 / October 2019
    Published online by Cambridge University Press:
    06 June 2019, pp. 490-505

  • In 2013, in light of the mass atrocity cases in Libya and Syria, the Foreign Affairs Committee of the European Parliament recommended ‘to reconfirm the EU’s commitment to R2P [Responsibility to Protect] by adopting an interinstitutional “Consensus on R2P”’. Despite such reaffirmation, the Union’s role in implementing R2P remains an open-ended question. To date, the EU’s contribution to R2P has rarely been studied. In our attempt to contribute to the literature, approaching the issue from an ethical perspective, we aim to answer the following questions: what are the existing capacities of the EU in contributing to R2P; and what can the EU do to be a more responsible actor in the future? After identifying the existing capacities of the Union, we analyse what the EU can do to make the international community more responsible in the future given that we have already left behind the first decade of the norm, which was characterized by inconsistent implementation. Finally, we conclude that the Union holds a genuine potential for further development and a consistent implementation of the norm mainly by utilizing its non-military tools.

  • Did Capital Market Development and Financial Depth Contribute to Growth? Evidence from European Financial Integration

  • Mazhar Mahmood, Kashif Ur Rehman
  • Journal:
    European Review / Volume 27 / Issue 4 / October 2019
    Published online by Cambridge University Press:
    04 June 2019, pp. 506-518

  • This study investigates the impact of financial depth and capital market development on the growth of European nations. Financial depth is important if the benefits of financial integration are to be realized. In fact, financial depth is a channel that promotes growth and risk sharing and curbs macroeconomic volatility. Panel data of 17 European nations from 1970 to 2013 were taken and results were obtained through the Pool Mean Group Estimation technique. Our results show that, for European nations, financial depth and stock market development contributed to long-term growth. However, the contribution of financial depth outweighs that of stock market development. Moreover, it was observed that in the case of Hungary and Ireland, capital market development and financial depth contributed to short-term growth. Trade openness was found to be significant for growth in the cases of Austria and Finland while financial depth and trade openness were found to be significant for Germany and Switzerland. In conclusion, in the short-run, financial depth contributed more to growth than stock market development. Therefore, the role of financial depth in enhancing growth can be said to be more persistent than that of stock market development.

  • Piero’s Madonna del Parto: Facts and Conjectures

  • Simon Altmann
  • Journal:
    European Review / Volume 27 / Issue 4 / October 2019
    Published online by Cambridge University Press:
    30 May 2019, pp. 455-467

  • Despite the large amount of work on Piero della Francesca’s Madonna del Parto, there are some problems that require attention, the most important being the alleged effect of the Council of Trent on this picture, which was withdrawn from the cult from 1583 to 1697: the usual interpretation that it had become unorthodox appears to be without foundation. There are also some questions about its iconology, which raise interesting conjectures about syncretic inputs.

  • Opening European Research to the World: Evidence from International Cooperation

  • Evanthia Kalpazidou Schmidt
  • Journal:
    European Review / Volume 27 / Issue 4 / October 2019
    Published online by Cambridge University Press:
    28 May 2019, pp. 563-584

  • In recent years, the European Union (EU) has intensified efforts to open European research programmes to the world. This paper focuses on the opening of European research to the world by studying the case of the FP7 international cooperation programme. It is based on a mixed-methods approach including analyses of quantitative data, documents and interviews with programme participants, policymakers and other stakeholders involved in 131 EU projects worldwide. The paper identifies features specific to the European international research cooperation scheme and contributes to our understanding of the supranational intervention and its impact on European research integration. Policymakers can use this piece of evidence to formulate enhanced strategies and better design and target activities both within the EU and globally, to achieve stronger, long-lasting research outcomes and effects.

  • ERW volume 27 issue 2 Cover and Back matter

  • Journal:
    European Review / Volume 27 / Issue 2 / May 2019
    Published online by Cambridge University Press:
    26 April 2019, pp. b1-b2
    • Article
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  • ERW volume 27 issue 2 Cover and Front matter

  • Journal:
    European Review / Volume 27 / Issue 2 / May 2019
    Published online by Cambridge University Press:
    26 April 2019, pp. f1-f3
    • Article
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  • Appendices: Genealogies

  • Miles Kerr-Peterson
  • Book:
    A Protestant Lord in James VI's Scotland
    Published by:
    Boydell & Brewer
    Published online:
    13 April 2019
    Print publication:
    19 April 2019, pp 195-210

  • Summary

    Genealogical Tables

    Only the branches that could be linked to the main line of the Earls Marischal are described below, although this comprised all the most important branches. Note that some children before the second Earl Marischal are omitted and children after the hereditary successors are not necessarily placed in birth order. ‘Mr’ indicated the contemporary designation for someone possessing a university degree. Numerals indicate the generations from the first individual on each table, so 1 represents the first generation, 2 the second, and so forth.

    Numbering the Earls Marischal

    It is important to note that in previous publications I have erroneously referred to George as the fourth rather than the fifth Earl Marischal, following the convention of the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. I am very grateful to Ian Dickson for pointing out this important oversight.

    The 1699 genealogist of the Keiths, then Alexander Nisbett's 1722 System of Heraldry, counted three William Earls Marischal before George – noting William the first earl in 1455, then William, the second earl, known as ‘Harken and Take Heed’, then his grandson, William, the third earl, called ‘William of the Tower’. The Scots Peerage refined the list, adding an additional earl, establishing that William the first Earl Marischal succeeded in 1431 and died 1463; William the second Earl Marischal, his son, died 1483; then William the third Earl Marischal (‘Harken and Take Heed’), his son, died 1527; then William the fourth Earl (‘William of the Tower’), his grandson, died in 1581. In the old series the second and third Earls Marischal had been combined.

    Thomas Innes revised this list in 1927, establishing that the actual first Earl Marischal was the son of the man previously thought to be the first. The man who was the real first earl had succeeded earlier than previously thought in 1446, being made earl in 1458. However, although the ODNB followed this revised convention, it managed to recombine the second and third Earls Marischal.

    Appendix 1. Descent of the Earls Marischal from Hervey de Keith to Edward de Keith

  • Hervey de Keith, King's Marischal. Active 1178–1199.

  • Malcolm de Keith. Active 1190–1220.

  • Philip de Keith, Marischal. Active from 1189. Dead by 1225.

  • Hervey de Keith, Marischal. Active from 1230. Dead by 1250.

  • Sir John de Keith, Marischal. Active by 1234. Dead by 1270.

  • 3 - Service to the State, 1595–1623

  • Miles Kerr-Peterson
  • Book:
    A Protestant Lord in James VI's Scotland
    Published by:
    Boydell & Brewer
    Published online:
    13 April 2019
    Print publication:
    19 April 2019, pp 72-90

  • Summary

    As Marischal's feud with Huntly drew to a close, his participation in court politics declined sharply. He continued to attend court, but, with the threat from the centre lifted, Marischal concentrated the majority of his time and effort in the localities and, as we will see in chapter five, increasingly delegated his responsibilities to his son and heir. There would be other feuds, detailed in chapter four, but none would draw him into high politics in the same way. Most of the earl's activities at the royal court and centre of government therefore concerned his relationship with the king and his services to the state, the focus of this chapter. ‘Services to the state’ in this context refers to positions of power that Marischal held from the crown, such as his positions as marischal, as a member of the privy council or as hereditary sheriff of the Mearns.

    There is a broad consensus that the reign of James VI saw far reaching changes in the relationship between the nobility and the state, as well as in the overall nature of government. Julian Goodare's study of the mechanisms of the Jacobean government perceived a growing intensification in the processes of state-building between 1560 and 1625, exaggerated by the Union of the Crowns, where the nobles were increasingly confined to advising the king or serving a more centralised royal government, rather than governing the localities on behalf of the king. This shift was achieved through interventions into the nobles’ old mechanisms of power, such as reforming sheriff courts. The nobility still retained a central role in the government of Scotland, while also maintaining their strong regional powerbases, meaning that the state was still essentially aristocratic, but their autonomy and power had been fundamentally eroded. Although this is largely seen as the outcome of James’ reign, its causes are more debatable. Julian Goodare emphasised the intentional development of government, while continuity has been stressed by Jenny Wormald and Keith Brown, who saw these changes as more to do with the end of a period of disruption caused by royal minority and civil war. For them, these changes were reactive and incremental, and not part of a self-consciously designed plan.

  • 7 - Economic Activities, 1581–1623

  • Miles Kerr-Peterson
  • Book:
    A Protestant Lord in James VI's Scotland
    Published by:
    Boydell & Brewer
    Published online:
    13 April 2019
    Print publication:
    19 April 2019, pp 151-166

  • Summary

    During James VI's minority the nobility of Scotland were encouraged to donate books to the young king's library to aid his education. William Keith, Master of Marischal (George's father), donated the Cosmographie Universelle of Andre Theuet. His brother Robert Keith, Commendator of Deer, gave Les Offices de Cicero, which was in both Latin and French. The selection of these specific books would suggest that they were important, or at least familiar, to the Keiths giving them. If these volumes were suitable gifts for the education of young James, then they would presumably have been suitable to give to young George, and both seem to have had an influence upon the boy.

    As a scholar he was keenly interested in the themes of the Cosmographie and especially its related field of chorography. Finding evidence for the influence of Cicero's De Officiis on George is less easy. In broad terms and as part of a wider European phenomenon, there had developed in Scotland a system of neo-stoicism that was heavily influenced by the works of classical authors, especially Cicero's De Officiis. This philosophy carried notions of practical civic virtue, where the virtuous man, trained and improved by philosophy, became actively involved in the public and political life of his community. The movement was pioneered by men such as Justus Lipsius, with whom Marischal was familiar, as he possessed a handwritten copy of one of Lipsius’ smaller philosophical treaties, De Bello De Pace. Certainly later generations of the family remembered George as a reformer of both ‘the country and citizenry’, citing his efforts in the foundation of Marischal College, but also in estate improvement.

    In De Officiis, Cicero gives advice on how a rich man should best spend his wealth. The greatest way, he says, is to spend money on works useful to the community, such as city walls, dockyards, harbours and aqueducts. Less appropriate are theatres, colonnades and temples. It is remarkable, and perhaps a small contributing factor to the fact that George would build three harbours and found two port-towns. These projects provide the focus for this chapter, which will assess the available evidence for Marischal's economic self-interest and ascertain how this interacted with his noble identity and whether there is any hint at Ciceronian benevolence behind it.

Page 58 of 499