In this chapter we examine three approaches to scientific knowledgeproduction that have evolved over the last hundred years. Two of theseapproaches developed over a period of over half a century, with roots thatdate back even further. One is more recent. In some respects they arecrucially different, with assumptions that vary profoundly. While this canlead to tensions, we can see how the various approaches shed light ondifferent yet equally important aspects of scientific endeavour in theworld, particularly with regard to the study of complex problems at theinterface of humanity and the planet.

We start with an exploration of how the standard scientific research methodhas evolved since the mid-twentieth century. As chapter 1 has shown, thisvaluable method has helped provide insights into the structures of our worldand explanations of key phenomena around us. But we also address possibleobjections to the proposed scientific procedure.

In the social sciences and the humanities, the diverging points of viewregarding the basic assumptions underlying the ‘standard’model have led to an alternative approach that is focused on understandingrather than explaining. Instead of aiming to discover truth through logicalinference and empirical observation, the focus is on the role ofinterpretation in the construction of knowledge. Thisalternative throws new light on the scientific enterprise, although it alsohas its own problems.

Under the banner of complexity thinking, we are currently witnessing the riseof another approach to science as systems thinking evolves, using computermodels and simulations. It resembles the traditional way of dealing withreality, since explanation is still seen as an important foundation ofknowledge. But it also transcends the standard scientific method byexpanding investigations beyond reality as it is now and extending into thefuture to say something about reality as it potentially can be.

After reviewing all three approaches, we can conclude that there is more thanone way to conduct scientific research. If this is a problem, then it is aluxury problem, since we probably need every available approach to obtainthe range and depth of insight needed to tackle the complex issues oftoday.