Introduction

Political engagement is central to the functioning of democratic society. An engaged citizenry is a sign of a healthy democracy. High levels of political and civic participation not only increase the chances of citizens’ voices being heard on important issues but also confer legitimacy on elected officials and democratic institutions. However, in many countries, there has been a growing concern since the 1990s that increasing numbers of the public, particularly younger generations, are becoming disengaged from political and civic life.

This disengagement, or ‘democratic deficit’ as it is termed by political scientists, has brought an increased focus on the role of education in helping to reverse this trend by educating young people how to engage politically. It has led to countries strengthening the role of citizenship education in their school curricula over the past 20 years through teaching and learning approaches designed to help young people to develop the civic competences (knowledge, skills, values and dispositions) that encourage them to engage politically now and in the future.

In England, this concern saw the establishment of the Citizenship Advisory Group (CAG), chaired by Professor (Sir) Bernard Crick, in 1998, and the introduction of citizenship as a new statutory national curriculum subject for all 11-to 16-year-olds in 2002. In the CAG final report, known as the ‘Crick Report’, the Lord Chancellor was quoted from a speech he made earlier in the year: ‘We should not, must not, dare not, be complacent about the health and future of British democracy. Unless we become a nation of engaged citizens, our democracy is not secure’ (QCA, 1998, p 8). The Crick Report projected the benefits of effective citizenship education to be:

• • For pupils – an entitlement in schools that will empower them to participate in society effectively as active, informed, critical and responsible citizens.

• • For schools – a firm base to coordinate existing teaching and activities, to relate positively to the local community and to develop effective citizenship education in the curriculum for all pupils.